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MICROBIOLOGY!225-80 > Chap 20 > Flashcards

Chap 20 Flashcards

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1
Q

Selective toxicity

A

selectively finding and destroying pathogens without damaging the host

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2
Q

Chemotherapy

A

the use of chemicals to treat a disease

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3
Q

Antibiotic

A

a substance produced by a microbe that, in small amounts, inhibits another microbe

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4
Q

Antimicrobial drugs

A

synthetic substances that interfere with the growth of microbes

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5
Q

1928: Fleming discovered penicillin, produced by

A

Penicillium

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6
Q

1932: Prontosil red dye used for

A

streptococcal infections

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7
Q

1940: First clinical trials of

A

penicillin

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8
Q

Today there is a growing problem of

A

antibiotic resistance

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9
Q

Bacillus subtilis

A

Bacitracin

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10
Q

Paenibacillus polymyxa

A

polymixin

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11
Q

More than half our antibiotics are produced by a certain genus of bacteria. What is it?

A

streptomyces

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12
Q

Narrow spectrum of microbial activity:

A

drugs that affect a narrow range of microbial types

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13
Q

Broad-spectrum antibiotics

A

affect a broad range of gram-positive or gram-negative bacteria

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14
Q

Superinfection

A

overgrowth of normal microbiota that is resistant to antibiotics

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15
Q

Identify at least one reason why it’s so difficult to target a pathogenic virus without damaging the host’s cells.

A

viruses replicate inside the host cell, utilizing the host’s own cellular machinery to multiply, meaning any attempt to disrupt the virus’s life cycle could also disrupt normal cellular functions, leading to host cell damage.

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16
Q

Bactericidal

A

Kill microbes directly

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17
Q

Bacteriostatic

A

Prevent microbes from growing

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18
Q

antimicrobial drugs target

A

certain essential functions of the microbe

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19
Q

Mechanisms of action include

A

1.inhibiting cell wall synthesis, 2.inhibiting protein synthesis,
3.inhibiting nucleic acid synthesis,
4. injuring the plasma membrane
5.inhibiting synthesis of essential metabolites

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20
Q

antimicrobial drug must not interfere with

A

essential functions of the microbe’s host

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21
Q

Penicillins prevent the synthesis of

A

peptidoglycan

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22
Q

Inhibiting protein synthesis

A

Target bacterial 70S ribosomes

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23
Q

Examples of drugs that inhibit protein synthesis

A

Chloramphenicol, erythromycin, streptomycin, tetracyclines

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24
Q

Injuring the plasma membrane

A

1.Polypeptide antibiotics change membrane permeability.

  1. Antifungal drugs combine with membrane sterols
  2. Ionophores antibiotics allow uncontrolled movement of cations (not for human use).
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25
Q

Inhibiting nucleic acid synthesis

A

Interfere with D N A replication and transcription

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26
Q

Inhibiting the synthesis of essential metabolites

A

Antimetabolites compete with normal substrates for an enzyme.

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27
Q

Sulfanilamide competes with

A

para-aminobenzoic acid (P A B A), stopping the synthesis of folic acid.

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28
Q

What cellular function is inhibited by tetracyclines?

A

protein synthesis

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29
Q

Chemotherapeutic Agents

A

antimicrobial drugs that fight disease by targeting a particular structural difference between human cells and those of the microbe

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30
Q

Why is it easier to develop antibacterial drugs?

A

Bacteria have many such differences

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31
Q

Viruses depend on the host’s machinery, so there are

A

fewer differences to target

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32
Q

eukaryotic pathogens such as ________& _________ have fewer differences from eukaryotic human cells

A

fungi & protozoa

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33
Q

eukaryotic pathogens such as fungi & protozoa have fewer differences from eukaryotic human cells, making it difficult to find drugs that have selective

A

toxicity against these pathogens.

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34
Q

treponema palladium

A

causes syphilis

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35
Q

Synthetic antibiotics vs natural antibiotics

A

natural- comes from another microbe to be used to fight against

synthetic- not found in nature

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36
Q

semisynthetic antimicrobial

A

chemically modified of a natural

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37
Q

antimicrobial drug

A

chemical substance that destroys pathogenic microorganisms with minimal damage to host tissues.

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38
Q

Chemotherapeutic agents include

A

chemicals that combat disease in the body.

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39
Q

developed the concept of chemotherapy to treat microbial diseases

A

Paul Ehrlich

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40
Q

came into prominence in the 1930s

A

sulfa drugs

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41
Q

discovered the first antibiotic, penicillin, in 1928; its first clinical trials were done in 1940.

A

Alexander Fleming

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42
Q

Most antibiotics are made by

A

Streptomyces bacteria

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43
Q

Antibacterial drugs affect many targets in a

A

prokaryotic cell.

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44
Q

Fungal, protozoan, and helminthic infections are more difficult to treat because

A

these organisms have eukaryotic cells.

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45
Q

Narrow-spectrum drugs affect only a select group of

A

microbes (gram-positive cells, for example);

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45
Q

broad-spectrum drugs

A

affect a more diverse range of microbes.

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46
Q

Which drugs can affect gram-negative cells?

A

Small, hydrophilic drugs

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47
Q

Antimicrobial agents should not cause excessive

A

harm to normal microbiota.

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48
Q

Superinfections occur when

A

1.a pathogen develops resistance to the drug being used
2.when normally resistant microbiota multiply excessively.

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49
Q

Antimicrobials generally act either by

A

directly killing microorganisms (bactericidal) or by inhibiting their growth (bacteriostatic).

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50
Q

Some agents, such as penicillin, inhibit

A

cell wall synthesis in bacteria.

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51
Q

Other agents, such as chloramphenicol, tetracyclines, and streptomycin, inhibit

A

protein synthesis by acting on 70S ribosomes.

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52
Q

Ionophore and polypeptide antibiotics damage

A

plasma membranes.

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53
Q

Some agents inhibit nucleic

A

acid synthesis.

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54
Q

Agents such as sulfanilamide act as

A

antimetabolites by competitively inhibiting enzyme activity.

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55
Q

All penicillins contain a

A

β-lactam ring.

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56
Q

Natural penicillins produced by Penicillium are effective against

A

gram-positive cocci and spirochetes.

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57
Q

Penicillinases (β-lactamases) are bacterial enzymes that destroy

A

natural penicillins

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58
Q

semisynthetic penicillins are resistant to

A

penicillinases and have a broader spectrum of activity than natural penicillins.

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59
Q

Carbapenems

A

broad-spectrum antibiotics that inhibit cell wall synthesis.

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60
Q

The monobactam aztreonam affects only

A

gram-negative bacteria.

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61
Q

Cephalosporins inhibit

A

cell wall synthesis and are used against penicillin-resistant strains.

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62
Q

Polypeptides such as bacitracin inhibit

A

cell wall synthesis primarily in gram-positive bacteria.

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63
Q

Vancomycin inhibits

A

cell wall synthesis and may be used to kill penicillinase-producing staphylococci.

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64
Q

Isoniazid (INH) and ethambutol inhibit

A

cell wall synthesis in mycobacteria.

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65
Q

Chloramphenicol

A

inhibit protein synthesis at 70S ribosomes.

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66
Q

aminoglycosides

A

inhibit protein synthesis at 70S ribosomes.

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67
Q

tetracyclines

A

inhibit protein synthesis at 70S ribosomes.

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68
Q

glycylcyclines

A

inhibit protein synthesis at 70S ribosomes.

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69
Q

macrolides

A

inhibit protein synthesis at 70S ribosomes.

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70
Q

streptogramins

A

inhibit protein synthesis at 70S ribosomes.

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71
Q

oxazolidinones

A

inhibit protein synthesis at 70S ribosomes.

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72
Q

pleuromutilins

A

inhibit protein synthesis at 70S ribosomes.

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73
Q

cause damage to plasma membranes.

A

Lipopeptides polymyxin B and bacitracin

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74
Q

Rifamycin inhibits

A

mRNA synthesis; it’s used to treat tuberculosis.

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75
Q

Quinolones and fluoroquinolones inhibit

A

DNA gyrase.

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76
Q

Sulfonamides competitively inhibit

A

folic acid synthesis.

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77
Q

SMZ-TMP competitively inhibits

A

dihydrofolic acid synthesis.

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78
Q

Fungicidal drugs

A

Polyenes, such as nystatin and amphotericin B,

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79
Q

How do Polyenes, such as nystatin and amphotericin B work?

A

combine with plasma membrane sterols

80
Q

Azoles and allylamines interfere with

A

with sterol synthesis and are used to treat cutaneous and systemic mycoses.

81
Q

Echinocandins interfere with

A

fungal cell wall synthesis.

82
Q

The antifungal agent flucytosine is an antimetabolite of

A

cytosine

83
Q

Griseofulvin interferes with

A

eukaryotic cell division

84
Q

Griseofulvin is used primarily to treat

A

skin infections caused by fungi.

85
Q

Entry inhibitors and fusion inhibitors bind to

A

viral attachment and receptor sites.

86
Q

Nucleoside and nucleotide analogs such as

A

acyclovir and zidovudine

87
Q

How do antiviral drugs like acyclovir and zidovudine work?

A

inhibit DNA or RNA synthesis.

88
Q

Inhibitors of viral enzymes prevents

A

viral assembly and exit.

89
Q

Alpha interferons inhibit

A

spread of viruses to new cells.

90
Q

Chloroquine used to treat

A

protozoan infections.

91
Q

artemisinin used to treat

A

protozoan infections

92
Q

quinacrine used to treat

A

protozoan infections.

93
Q

diiodohydroxyquin used to treat

A

protozoan infections.

94
Q

pentamidine used to treat

A

protozoan infections

95
Q

metronidazole used to treat

A

protozoan infections.

96
Q

Antihelminthic drugs include

A

mebendazole, praziquantel, and ivermectin.

97
Q

mebendazole used to treat

A

anti-helminthic

98
Q

praziquantel used to treat

A

anti-helminthic

99
Q

ivermectin used to treat

A

anti-helminthic

100
Q

Tests are used to determine which chemotherapeutic agent is most likely to

A

combat a specific pathogen.

101
Q

Tests to guide chemotherapy are used when

A

susceptibility cannot be predicted or when drug resistance arises.

102
Q

What happens in the kirby-bauer test?

A

a bacterial culture is inoculated on an agar medium, and filter paper disks impregnated with chemotherapeutic agents are overlaid on the culture.

103
Q

After incubation, the diameter of the zone of inhibition is used to determine

A

whether the organism is sensitive, intermediate, or resistant to the drug.

104
Q

Minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC)

A

is the lowest concentration of drug capable of preventing microbial growth; MIC can be estimated using the E test.

105
Q

Explain the broth dilution test

A

the microorganism is grown in liquid media containing different concentrations of a chemotherapeutic agent

106
Q

minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC).

A

lowest concentration of a chemotherapeutic agent that kills bacteria

107
Q

Many bacterial diseases, previously treatable with antibiotics, have become

A

resistant to antibiotics.

108
Q

Superbugs

A

bacteria that are resistant to several antibiotics.

109
Q

Drug resistance factors are transferred

A

horizontally between bacteria.

110
Q

Horizontal gene transfer

A

Transfer of genes between two organisms in the same generation

111
Q

Resistance may be due to

A
  1. enzymatic destruction of a drug
  2. prevention of penetration of the drug to its target site
  3. cellular or metabolic changes at target sites
  4. alteration of the target site
  5. rapid efflux of the antibiotic.
112
Q

What can minimize resistance?

A

The discriminating use of drugs in appropriate concentrations and dosages

113
Q

Antibiotic safety

A

The risk (e.g., side effects) versus the benefit (e.g., curing an infection) must be evaluated before antibiotics are used.

114
Q

Some combinations of drugs are synergistic

A

they are more effective when taken together.

115
Q

Some combinations of drugs are antagonistic

A

when taken together, both drugs become less effective than when taken alone.

116
Q

Future of Chemotherapeutic Agents

A

New agents include antimicrobial peptides, bacteriocins, and bacteriophages

117
Q

may provide new targets

A

Virulence factors rather than cell growth factors

118
Q

zone of inhibition

A

The area of no bacterial growth around an antimicrobial agent in the disk-diffusion method.

119
Q

superinfection

A

The growth of a pathogen that has developed resistance to an antimicrobial drug being used; the growth of an opportunistic pathogen.

120
Q

selective toxicity

A

The property of some antimicrobial agents to be toxic for a microorganism and nontoxic for the host.

121
Q

persister cells

A

Bacterial cells in a population that avoid being killed by antibiotics because they are dormant, not because they are mutants.

122
Q

non-nucleoside inhibitor

A

A drug that binds with and inhibits the action of the HIV reverse transcriptase enzyme.

123
Q

minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC)

A

The lowest concentration of a chemotherapeutic agent that will prevent growth of the test microorganisms.

124
Q

minimal bactericidal concentration (MBC)

A

The lowest concentration of chemotherapeutic agent that will kill test microorganisms.

125
Q

macrolide

A

An antibiotic that inhibits protein synthesis; for example, erythromycin.

126
Q

ketolide

A

Semisynthetic macrolide antibiotic; effective against macrolide-resistant bacteria

127
Q

E test

A

An agar diffusion test to determine antibiotic sensitivity using a plastic strip impregnated with varying concentrations of an antibiotic.

128
Q

disk-diffusion method

A

An agar-diffusion test to determine microbial susceptibility to chemotherapeutic agents; also called Kirby-Bauer test.

129
Q

chemotherapy

A

Treatment of disease with chemical substances.

130
Q

carbapenems

A

Antibiotics that contain a β-lactam antibiotic and cilastatin.

131
Q

A method of determining the minimal inhibitory concentration by using serial dilutions of an antimicrobial drug.

A

broth dilution test

132
Q

An antibiotic that is effective against a wide range of both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria

A

broad-spectrum antibiotic

133
Q

A treatment capable of inhibiting bacterial growth.

A

bacteriostasis

134
Q

A substance capable of killing bacteria.

A

bactericide

135
Q

AZOLE

A

Antifungal agents that interfere with sterol synthesis.

136
Q

antiretroviral

A

A drug used to treat HIV infection.

137
Q

antibiotic

A

An antimicrobial agent, usually produced naturally by a bacterium or fungus.

138
Q

antibiogram

A

Report of antibiotic susceptibility of a bacterium

139
Q

antagonism

A

Active opposition; (1) When two drugs are less effective than either one alone. (2) Competition among microbes.

140
Q

aminoglycoside

A

An antibiotic consisting of amino sugars and an aminocyclitol ring; for example, streptomycin.

141
Q

allylamines

A

Antifungal agents that interfere with sterol synthesis.

142
Q

Who developed the concept of chemotherapy to treat microbial diseases?

A

Paul Ehrlich

143
Q

What are superbugs?

A

Bacteria that are resistant to several antibiotics

144
Q

What is the lowest concentration of a drug capable of preventing microbial growth called?

A

Minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC)

145
Q

Which test uses filter paper disks impregnated with chemotherapeutic agents to determine bacterial sensitivity?

A

Disk-diffusion test (Kirby-Bauer test)

146
Q

What do nucleoside and nucleotide analogs inhibit?

A

DNA or RNA synthesis

147
Q

What is the primary use of griseofulvin?

A

Treat skin infections caused by fungi

148
Q

Which antifungal agent is an antimetabolite of cytosine?

A

Flucytosine

149
Q

What is the function of azoles and allylamines in antifungal treatment?

A

Interfere with sterol synthesis

150
Q

Which antifungal drugs combine with plasma membrane sterols and are fungicidal?

A

Polyenes

151
Q

What do sulfonamides competitively inhibit?

A

Folic acid synthesis

152
Q

What is phage therapy?

A

Using bacteriophages to kill bacterial cells

153
Q

What is squalamine?

A

A steroid with antimicrobial properties isolated from sharks

154
Q

What are magainins?

A

Antimicrobial peptides from amphibian skin glands

155
Q

What is a promising new avenue of research for developing new antibiotics?

A

Knowledge of the basic genetic structure of microbes

156
Q

What percentage of bacterial species found in nature are incapable of being grown on conventional laboratory media?

A

Over 99%

157
Q

What makes gram-negative bacteria resistant to most antibiotics?

A

Their cell wall

158
Q

Why do most drugs fail when tested against dormant cells?

A

They are tested against exponentially growing pathogens

159
Q

What is one potential target for new antimicrobial drugs?

A

Sequestering iron

160
Q

Why is there a concern about a post-antibiotic era?

A

Pathogens are developing resistance to current chemotherapeutic agents

161
Q

What is a new approach to controlling pathogens mentioned in the text?

A

Targeting their virulence factors

162
Q

How does tetracycline interfere with the action of penicillin?

A

Tetracycline stops the growth of bacteria, which interferes with penicillin’s requirement for bacterial growth

163
Q

What is an example of antagonism in drug treatment?

A

Penicillin and tetracycline

164
Q

What is antagonism in the context of drug interactions?

A

The simultaneous use of two drugs is less effective than when either drug is used alone

165
Q

How does penicillin enhance the effectiveness of streptomycin in treating bacterial endocarditis?

A

Penicillin damages bacterial cell walls, making it easier for streptomycin to enter

166
Q

What is an example of synergism in drug treatment?

A

Penicillin and streptomycin

167
Q

What is synergism in the context of drug interactions?

A

The chemotherapeutic effect of two drugs given simultaneously is greater than the effect of either given alone

168
Q

What is a possible hypersensitivity reaction to penicillins?

A

Allergic reaction

169
Q

What should a pregnant woman consider when taking antibiotics?

A

Only take antibiotics classified by the FDA as presenting no evidence of risk to the fetus

170
Q

What kind of damage can potentially be caused by serious side effects of antibiotics?

A

Liver or kidney damage

171
Q

Which antibiotic is known to neutralize the effectiveness of contraceptive pills?

A

Rifampin

172
Q

What is the term for assessing the risks against the benefits of administering a drug?

A

Therapeutic index

173
Q

What is the recommended practice for patients to prevent antibiotic resistance?

A

Finish the full regimen of their antibiotic prescriptions

174
Q

What is the role of β-lactamase enzymes in antibiotic resistance?

A

They hydrolyze the β-lactam ring of antibiotics

175
Q

What is a common method to prevent the formation of antibiotic aerosols during injection?

A

Inserting the needle into sterile cotton to expel air bubbles

176
Q

Which structure in bacteria restricts absorption of many molecules, contributing to antibiotic resistance?

A

Porins

177
Q

What is one major mechanism by which bacteria become resistant to antibiotics?

A

Enzymatic destruction or inactivation of the drug

178
Q

What practice in the developed world contributes significantly to antibiotic resistance?

A

Using antibiotics in animal feeds to promote growth

179
Q

What percentage of antibiotics in rural Bangladesh were prescribed by a physician?

A

8%

180
Q

What is the primary cause of antibiotic misuse in less-developed areas?

A

Antibiotics can be purchased without prescriptions

181
Q

How are antibiotic resistance genes commonly spread among bacteria?

A

Horizontally by conjugation or transduction

182
Q

What term is used for bacteria that survive antibiotic treatment due to genetic characteristics?

A

Persister cells

183
Q

What is the purpose of antibiograms prepared by hospital personnel?

A

To record the susceptibility of organisms encountered clinically

184
Q

What additional information can a broth dilution test provide that the diffusion method cannot?

A

Whether a drug is bactericidal

185
Q

What is determined by making a sequence of decreasing concentrations of the drug in a broth?

A

Minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC)

186
Q
A
187
Q

An antimicrobial drug that inhibits peptidoglycan synthesis is most likely to be effective against

A

Gram positive bacteria

188
Q

Bacterial infections are easier to treat using chemotherapy because

A

Bacteria are prokaryotic, many differences between cell types. Affect prokaryotic cells, but not human cells.

189
Q

When do Superinfections occur

A

1.Pathogen develops resistance to the drug being used
2.Normally resistant microbiota multiply excessively

190
Q

A disadvantage of using broad spectrum antibiotics for treating bacterial infections is the potential for

A

Superinfection

191
Q

Clindamycin binds to which ribosomal subunit to inhibit translocation?

A

50s

192
Q

Clindamycin stops

A

Translation in prokaryotes

193
Q

Which antibiotic has noted association Clostridium difficile associated diarrhea?

A

Clindamycin

194
Q

Which antibiotic: It’s effectiveness against anaerobes has led to its use in the treatment of acne

A

Clindamycin

195
Q

Sulfa drugs block the cell’s ability to

A

synthesize essential metabolites

196
Q

Anthelmintic drug that causes paralysis of the worm

A

Ivermectin

197
Q

Results in paralysis and death of the helminth without affecting mammalian host

A

Ivermectin

198
Q

Example of broad spectrum antihelmintic

A

Ivermectin

MICROBIOLOGY!225-80 (24 decks)

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