Ch. 8 Anatomy And Physiology Flashcards
Anatomy
The study of the structure and makeup of the organism
Physiology
The study of the processes and functions of the body.
Homeostasis
A balance in which organs and systems can function effectively
Digestion
The ability to convert food sources into simpler compounds
Respiration
The ability to use food sources in combination with oxygen to release the energy contained within those sources into the environment.
Level of organization in the Human Body.
Chemical Cellular Tissue Organ Organ system Organism
Chemical
Chemical level of organisms consists of atoms and molecules.
Cellular
The cellular level is made up of cells, which are the basic living units of structure and function in the human organism.
Each cell has a specific function
Tissue
Tissues are created when several cells with common functions join
Example: many muscle cells join to create muscle tissue
Organ
Organs are created when several types of tissue join to perform a function.
Example: the heart contains muscle tissue as well as epithelial and nervous tissue.
Organ system
Systems are created when several organs combine to perform a common function.
Example: digestive system included several organs that each have a role in breaking down food into components the body can utilize.
Organism
The combination of all lower levels of organization working together to ensure survival.
Patho
Disease
Nucleus
Protons and neutrons are located in the nucleus
Contains the genetic info
Controls the function and structure of a cell
What makes the mass of an atom?
The number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus
The number of protons in an atom is known as its
Atomic number
Ions
Electrically charged atoms or groups of atoms
Cation
Ions with a positive charge
Anions
Ions with a negative charge
Ionic bond
A type of chemical bond formed from the attraction between two oppositely charged ions.
Covalent bond
Occurs when atoms are bonded to form molecules by sharing electrons.
Polar molecule
When covalent bonds do not share electrons equally.
Example: water
Hydrogen bond
Chemical bond formed between a hydrogen atom and a negatively charged atom such as oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine.
Important in protein and nucleus acid structure.
Compound
A substance that can be broken down into the two or more elements contained within it.
Example: water, table sugar, baking soda
Mineral
A naturally occurring inorganic element.
Used in the chemical reactions that occur in the body and are necessary to sustain normal cell functions.
Organic compounds
Contain carbon
Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, and nucleus acids
Carbohydrates (saccharides)
Sugars or starches
Made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
Energy from carbohydrates mostly used to power cellular processes.
Types of carbohydrates
Monosaccharides (simple sugars)
Oligosaccharides (simple sugars made up of 2-10 monosaccharides)
Polysaccharides (complex sugars)
Glucose (dextrose)
Important simple sugar, normally found in the blood
Enzymes
In the liver
Converts fructose and galactose in glucose, which is the form of carbohydrate most commonly oxidized for use as cellular fuel.
Ribose and deoxyribose
Simple sugars used in the manufacture of RNA and DNA
Glycogen
An animal starch, is the main polysaccharide in the body and is the form in which glucose is stored in the human body (primarily in the liver and skeletal muscle.
Proteins
Most abundant of the body’s organic compounds
Include:
Enzymes, plasma proteins, muscle components (actin and myosin), hormones, and antibodies
Hormones
Substances formed in tiny amounts by one specialized organ or group of cells and then carried to another organ or group of cells in the same organism to perform regulatory functions
Chemical messengers.
Antibodies
Also called immunoglobulins
Proteins that detect and destroy foreign substances
Collagen
Twisted rope like protein which gives stregth to ligaments and connective tissues
Keratin
Functions to prevent water loss through the skin
Proteins of the Cell membrane (cell wall)
May serve as receptors and carriers for specific molecules
Peptides
Protein molecules consisting of amino acids held together by peptide bonds
Polypeptide
Formed from many amino acids bound into a chain
ABO system
Commonly used blood classification system, based on the antigens present or absent in the blood.
Accessory muscles
Muscles not normally used during quiet breathing;
Example: sternocleidomastoid muscles of the neck, and chest pectoral is major muscles and abdominal muscles.
Accommodation
The ability of the lens of the eye to change its shape to focus on a close object.
Acetabulum
The socket formed by the coral (hip) bone into which the ball shaped femoral head fits snugly
Acetylcholine
a neurotransmitter released at synapses within the autonomic nervous system and by motor neurons to stimulate skeletal muscle contraction.
Acetycholinesterase
An enzyme found in the central nervous system, in red blood cells, and in motor endplates of the skeletal muscle that causes the decomposition of acetylcholine.
Acid
Any molecule that can give up hydrogen a hydrogen ion, and therefore increases the concentration of hydrogen ions in a water solution.
Acidosis
A pathologic condition resulting from the accumulation of acids in the body.
Acromion process
The tip of the shoulder and the site of attachments for the clavicle and various shoulder muscles.
Action potential
Sequences of changes in the membrane potential that occurs when an excitable cell (neurons or muscle) is stimulated.
Actin
A contractile protein found in the thin filaments of skeletal muscle cells.
Active transport
Method used to move compounds across a cell membrane to create or maintain an imbalance of charges, usually against a concentration gradient and requiring the expenditure of energy.
Adaptation
The temporary or permanent reduction of sensitivity to a particular stimulus
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
A nucleotide formed from the metabolism of nutrients in the cell; involved in energy metabolism; used to store energy.
Adrenal cortex
The outer layer of the adrenal gland; it produces hormones that are important in regulating the water and salt balance of the body.
Adrenal glands
Paired endocrine glands located on top of the kidneys that release epinephrine and norepinephrine when stimulated by the sympathetic nervous system; each adrenal gland consists of the inner adrenal medulla and an adrenal cortex.
Adrenergic
Having the characteristics of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system.
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Hormone that targets the adrenal cortex to secrete cortisol (a glucocorticoid).
Aerobic metabolism
Metabolism that can proceed only in the presence of oxygen.
Afterimage
The perception that stimulus is still present after the stimulus has been removed.
After load
The pressure in the aorta against which the left ventricle must pump blood.
Albumins
The smallest of plasma proteins; they make up around 60% of the plasma proteins and are responsible for the oncotic pressure in the vascularature, there by controlling the movement of water into and out of the circulation.
Aldosterone
The hormone responsible for the reabsorption of sodium and water from the kidney tubules.
Alkalosis
A pathologic condition resulting from the accumulation of bases in the body
Alleles
Variant forms of a gene, which can be identical or slightly different in a sequence of deoxyribonucleic acid.
Alveoli
The air sacs of the lungs in which the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place; also, the bony sockets for the teeth that reside in the mandible and maxilla (singular, alveolus)
Anabolism
The building of larger substances from smaller substances, such as the building of proteins from amino acids.
Anaerobic metabolism
Metabolism that occurs in the absence of oxygen.
Anatomy
The study of the structure of an organism and its parts
Angle of Louis
A prominence of the sternum that indicates the point where the second rib joins the sternum; also Called the sternal angle or manubriosternal junction.
Antagonist
A molecule that blocks the ability of a given chemical to bind to its receptor, preventing a biologic response.
Antigens
Proteins, polysaccharides, glycoproteins, or glycolipids commonly found on the surfaces of red blood cells that stimulate an immune system response and cause formation of antibodies; cells learn to recognize antigens as either “self” or “nonself” (foreign).
Aorta
The principal artery leaving the left side of the heart carrying freshly oxygenated blood to the body; the largest artery in the body.
Aortic valve
The semilunar valve that regulates blood flow from the left ventricle to the aorta.
Apneustic center
A portion of the pons that is thought to work with the pontine respiratory group to regulate the length and depth of inspiration.
Appendicular skeleton
The portion of the skeletal system made up of the upper extremities, shoulder, girdle, pelvic girdle, and lower extremities.
Aqueous humor
Watery fluid filling the anterior eye cavity; the quantity determines the intraocular pressure, which is critical to sight.
Areolar tissue
A type of loose connective tissue that binds skin to underlying organs and fills in spaces between muscles.
Arytenoid cartilages
Six paired cartilages stacked on top of each other in the larynx.
Astigmatism
Condition where parts of the image are out of focus and others are in focus; caused by irregularities in the shape of the eye lens.
Atlas
The first cervical vertebra (C1), which provides support for the head.
Atria
Two upper chambers of the heart
Atrial natriuretic peptide
A hormone produced by the atria when they are distended by increased blood volume; it inhibits the absorption of water and sodium in the renal tubules, thereby increasing the elimination of water.
Atrioventricular node (AV)
A group of cells that conduct an electrical impulse through the heart; located in the floor of the right atrium immediately behind the tricuspid valve and near the opening of the coronary sinus.
Atrioventricular valves
The mitral and tricuspid valves through which blood flows from the atria to the ventricles.
Automaticity
Ability of cardiac pacemaker cells to initiate an electrical impulse spontaneously without being stimulated from another source (such as a nerve).
Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
A subdivision of the nervous system that controls primarily involuntary body functions; comprised of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.
Autosomes
The chromosomes that do not carry genes that determine sex.
Axial skeleton
The portion of the skeleton made up of the skull, thoracic cage, and vertebral column.
Axis
Imaginary line joining the positive and negative electrodes of a lead; also the second cervical vertebra.
Axon
Long, slender extension of a neuron that conducts electrical impulses away from the nerve cell body to adjacent cells.
B lymphocytes
Lymphocytes that exist in the blood, and are abundant in the lymph nodes, bone marrow, intestinal lining, and spleen; also called B cells.
Baroreceptors
Nerve endings that are stimulated by pressure changes including increased arterial blood pressure; they are located in the aortic arch and carotid sinuses.
Basal ganglia
Structures located deep within the cerebrum, diencephalon, and midbrain that have an important role in coordination of motor movements and posture.
Basal metabolic rate
The rate at which nutrients are consumed by the body.
Basophils
White blood cells that contain histamine granules and other substances that are released during inflammatory and allergic responses
Bilirubin
A waste product of red blood cell destruction that undergoes further metabolism in the liver.
Binocular vision
The merging of two images into one.
Blood brain barrier
A layer of tightly adhered cells that protects the brain and spinal cord from exposure to medications, toxins, and infectious particles.
Bone marrow
Soft tissue that fills the inside of the bones and is the site of production of red blood cells, platelets, and moist white blood cells.
Bony labyrinth
The collection of hollows in the bone of the inner ear that provide protection to the structures of the inner ear from damage and from extraneous stimulation
Boyle’s law
Gas law that demonstrates that as pressure increases, volume decreases; at a constant temperature, the volume of a gas is inversely proportional to its pressure (if the pressure on a gas is doubles, then its volume is halved); written as PV=K, where P=pressure, V=volume, and K=a constant.
Brain
Part of the central nervous system located within the cranium; contains billions of neurons that serve a variety of functions including consciousness, perception, control of reactions to the environment, emotional responses, and judgement.
Brainstem
The area of the brain between the spinal cord and cerebrum that contains the midbrain, pons, and medulla; controls functions that are necessary for life, such as breathing.
Bruit
Abnormal whooshing sounds indicating turbulent blood flow within a narrow blood vessel, usually heard in the carotid arteries
Buffer system
Fast acting defenses for acid base changes, providing almost immediate protection against changes in the hydrogen ion concentration of extra cellular fluid.
Bundle of His
The portion of the conduction system of the heart located in the upper portion of the interventricular septum that conducts an electrical impulse from the atrioventricular junction to the right and left bundle branches
Bursa
A small, pad like sac or cavity filled with a small amount of synovial fluid that helps reduce the amount of friction between a tendon and a bone or between a tendon and a ligament, usually located near a joint.
Calcaneus
The heel bone; the largest of the tarsal bones.
Calorie
The amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of a gram of water by 33F (1C); the amount of energy that can be obtained from the nutrients you eat; also called a kilocalorie.
Carbohydrates
Substances that provide much of the energy required by the body’s cells, as well as helping to build cell structures.
Cardiac cycle
The repetitive pumping process that begins with the onset of cardiac muscle contraction and ends just before the beginning of the next contraction; each one consists of ventricular contraction and relaxation.
Carina
The point of bifurcation of the right and left primary (mainstem) bronchi.
Carpal bones
The eight small bones of the wrist.
Cartilaginous joints
Those connected by hyaline cartilage, or fibrocartilage, such as the joints that separate the vertebrae.
Catabolism
The breakdown of larger molecules into smaller ones.
Cataract
Clouding of the lens of the eye or its surrounding transparent membrane.
Catecholamines
Amine substances such as dopamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine that function as neurotransmitters, hormones, or both
Cell membrane
The cell wall; a selectively permeable layer of cells that surround in trace lunar contents and control movement of substances into and out of the cell; also called the cytoplasmic membrane or plasma membrane
Cellular respiration
A biochemical process resulting in the production of energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate.
Central nervous system (CNS)
The brain and spinal cord
Cerebellum
Area of the brain involved in fine and gross muscle coordination; responsible for interpretation of actual movement and correction of any movements that interfere with coordination and the body’s position.
Cerebral cortex
The outer covering of gray matter that covers the cerebral hemispheres; regulates voluntary skeletal movement and plays an important role in one’s level of awareness.
Cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP)
Pressure inside the cerebral arteries and an indicator of brain perfusion; calculated by subtracting intracranial pressure from mean arterial pressure.
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
Fluid produced in the ventricles of the brain that flows in the subarachnoid space and bathes the meninges.
Cerebrum
The largest part of the brain; made up of several lobes that control movement, hearing, balance, speech, visual perception, emotions, and personality; divided into right and left hemispheres also called gray matter.
Cervical canal
The interior of the cervix
Cervix
The lower one third or neck of the uterus.
Chemoreceptors
Sense organs that monitor the levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide and the pH of cerebrospinal fluid and blood and provide feedback to the respiratory centers to modify the rate and depth of breathing based on the body’s needs at any given time.
Cholinergic
Having the characteristics of the parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system; also refers to other structures or functions that are related to acetylcholine.
Chordae tendineae
Thin bands of fibrous tissue that attach to the atrioventricular valves in the heart and prevent them from inverting.
Choroid
The vascular, pigmented middle layer of the eye wall.
Choroid plexus
Group of specialized cells in the ventricles of the brain; filters blood through cerebral capillaries to create cerebrospinal fluid.
Chromosomes
Structures formed from condensed fibers and protein of deoxyribonucleic acid; they are threadlike and are contained within the nucleus of the cells.
Chronotropic effect
Related to the effect of the rate of contraction of the heart.
Ciliary body
The structure asssociated with the choroid layer of the eye that secretes aqueous humor and contains the ciliary muscle.
Circulatory system
The complex arrangement of connected tubes, including the arteries, arterioles, capillaries, ventures, and veins, that moves blood, oxygen, nutrients, carbon dioxide, and cellular waste throughout the body.
Circumflex coronary artery
One of two branches of the left main coronary artery.
Citric acid cycle
A sequence of enzymatic reactions involving the metabolism of carbon chains of glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids to yield carbon dioxide, water, and high energy phosphate bonds; also known as the Karen’s cycle or tricarboxylic acid cycle.
Clotting cascade
A set of interactions that lead to the formation of a fibrin clot; also called the coagulation cascade.
Cochlea
The portion of the inner ear that has hearing receptors.
Compound
A substance that can be broken down into the two or more elements contained within it.
Conductivity
The property that allows a cardiac cell to receive an electrical impulse and pass it on to an adjoining cardiac cell.
Cones
One of two photoreceptors of the retina that can distinguish colors, but requires a greater amount of light to activate and create an image.
Conjunctiva
The membranous covering on the anterior surface of the eye that also lines the eyelids.
Conjunctivitis
Inflammation of the conjunctiva
Connective tissues
Tissues that bind, support, protect, frame, and fill a body structures; they also store fat, produce blood cells, repair tissues, and protect against infection.
Contractility
The ability of myocardial cells to shorten in response to an impulse, which results in contraction.
Cornea
The transparent tissue layer in front of the pupil and iris of the eye.
Coronary sinus
Venous drain for the coronary circulation into the right atrium.
Corpus callosum
A deep bridge of nerve fibers connecting the brain hemispheres.
Corticosteroids
Any of several steroids secreted by the adrenal gland.
Cortisol
A glucocorticoid of the middle adrenal cortex that influences protein and fat metabolism and stimulates glucose to be synthesized from non carbohydrates.
Cranial nerves
The 12 pairs of nerves that arise from the base of the brain.
Cranial vault
The bones that encase and protect the brain, including the parietal, temporal, frontal, occipital, sphenoid, and ethmoid bones; the roof of the skull (cranium).
Cranium
The area of the head above the ears and eyes; the part of the skull that houses the brain.
Cribriform plate
A horizontal bone perforated with numerous openings for the passage of the olfactory nerve filaments from the nasal cavity.
Cricoid cartilage
A firm ridge of cartilage that forms the lower part of the larynx; the first ring of the trachea and the only upper airway structure that forms a complete ring; also called the cricoid ring.
Cricothyroid membrane
A thin sheet of fascia located between the thyroid and cricoid cartilage that relatively avascular and contains few nerves; the site for emergency access to the airway.
