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Body Systems L15 Flashcards

1
Q

Name types of systemic & vascular disorders

A

Hypertension
Atherosclerosis
Thrombosis

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2
Q

Describe Hypertension

A

• Hypertension:
 Affects nearly one billion
 One of the main causes -> premature death.
 Nearly 8 million fatalities per year
 Types:
- Primary Hypertension
(Essential / Idiopathic)
 Unknown medical cause
 Links:
 Genetic predisposition
 Alcohol consumption
 Obesity
 Lack of excersise
 Diabetes
 Intrauterine environment
- Secondary Hypertension
 Known medical cause
1) Kidney Disease:
 Incr. Angiotensin II
» Vasoconstriction & expansion -> cellular fluid
2) General endocrine disorders
Eg. Diabetes, Cushing’s
3) Adrenal medulla disease (Phaeochroocytoma)
 Excessive adrenaline secretion
 Treatment:
- Inhibit angiotensin II production -> Angiotensin-Converting-Enzyme (ACE)
» Prevents renal absorption -> Na+/H2O
> Prevents incr. blood volume
- Ibhibition -> Angiotensin II induced vasoconstriction -> Angiotensin II receptor
blocker.
&raquo_space; Inhibitd membrane cardiac / vascular depolarizoation
> Decr. CO -> vasodilation.
- Calcium-channel blocker / thiazide diuretic
&raquo_space; Incr. loss -> Na+ & H2O
> Decreases fluid volume, venous return & cardiac output.
- Reduce TBR -> inhibition -> noradrenaline action.
- Alpha-adrenoreceptor Antagonists (alpha-Blockers)
 Reduce TBR -> inhibition -> noradrenaline action.
- Beta-adrenoreceptor Antagonists (beta-Blockers)
 Decr. CO2,
 Decr. central activity -> Symapthetic nervous system
 Decr. release -> Renin
-» Favourable secondary actions
 Risks:
- Atherosclerosis
- Stroke / Cerebrovascular Accident
- Heart Failure
- Renal Failure
- Aneurysms

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3
Q

What are the figures regarding those affected by hypertension

A

 Affects nearly one billion
 One of the main causes -> premature death.
 Nearly 8 million fatalities per year

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4
Q

Name the types of hypertension

A

Primary

Secondary

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5
Q

Describe primary hypertension & the main links associated with it

A 
-	Primary Hypertension
(Essential / Idiopathic) 
 Unknown medical cause
 Links:
	Genetic predisposition
	Alcohol consumption
	Obesity
	Lack of excersise
	Diabetes
	Intrauterine environment
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6
Q

Describe secondary Hypertension & the main known causes

A 
-	Secondary Hypertension
 Known medical cause
1)	Kidney Disease:
 Incr. Angiotensin II 
>> Vasoconstriction & expansion -> cellular fluid
2)	General endocrine disorders
Eg. Diabetes, Cushing’s
3)	Adrenal medulla disease (Phaeochroocytoma)
 Excessive adrenaline secretion

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7
Q

What are the types of secondary hypertension & what do they cause?

A

1) Kidney Disease:
 Incr. Angiotensin II
» Vasoconstriction & expansion -> cellular fluid
2) General endocrine disorders
Eg. Diabetes, Cushing’s
3) Adrenal medulla disease (Phaeochroocytoma)
 Excessive adrenaline secretion

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8
Q

What does kidney disease in relation to hypertension cause?

A

1) Kidney Disease:
 Incr. Angiotensin II
» Vasoconstriction & expansion -> cellular fluid

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9
Q

What does General endocrine disorders in relation to hypertension cause?

A

2) General endocrine disorders

Eg. Diabetes, Cushing’s

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10
Q

What does Adrenal medulla disease in relation to hypertension cause?

A

3) Adrenal medulla disease (Phaeochroocytoma)

 Excessive adrenaline secretion

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11
Q

Describe the treatment methods for Hypertension

A

 Treatment:
- Inhibit angiotensin II production -> Angiotensin-Converting-Enzyme (ACE)
» Prevents renal absorption -> Na+/H2O
> Prevents incr. blood volume
- Ibhibition -> Angiotensin II induced vasoconstriction -> Angiotensin II receptor
blocker.
&raquo_space; Inhibitd membrane cardiac / vascular depolarizoation
> Decr. CO -> vasodilation.
- Calcium-channel blocker / thiazide diuretic
&raquo_space; Incr. loss -> Na+ & H2O
> Decreases fluid volume, venous return & cardiac output.
- Reduce TBR -> inhibition -> noradrenaline action.
- Alpha-adrenoreceptor Antagonists (alpha-Blockers)
 Reduce TBR -> inhibition -> noradrenaline action.
- Beta-adrenoreceptor Antagonists (beta-Blockers)
 Decr. CO2,
 Decr. central activity -> Symapthetic nervous system
 Decr. release -> Renin
-» Favourable secondary actions

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12
Q

Outline the methods used to treat hypertensin

A
  • Inhibit angiotensin II production
  • Inhibit angiotensin II production
  • Calcium-channel blocker / thiazide diuretic
  • Reduce TBR -> inhibition -> noradrenaline action.
  • Alpha-adrenoreceptor Antagonists
    Beta-adrenoreceptor Antagonists
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13
Q

Describe how angiotensin II production is prevented in treatment of hypertension

A
  • Inhibit angiotensin II production -> Angiotensin-Converting-Enzyme (ACE)
    » Prevents renal absorption -> Na+/H2O
    > Prevents incr. blood volume
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14
Q

Describe how angiotensin II induced vasoconstriction is inhibited in treatment of hypertension

A

Ibhibition -> Angiotensin II induced vasoconstriction -> Angiotensin II receptor
blocker.
&raquo_space; Inhibitd membrane cardiac / vascular depolarizoation
> Decr. CO -> vasodilation.

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15
Q

Describe how - Calcium-channel blocker / thiazide diuretic is used in treatment of hypertension

A
  • Calcium-channel blocker / thiazide diuretic
    &raquo_space; Incr. loss -> Na+ & H2O
    > Decreases fluid volume, venous return & cardiac output.
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16
Q

Describe how Alpha-adrenoreceptor Antagonists are used in treatment of hypertension

A
  • Alpha-adrenoreceptor Antagonists (alpha-Blockers)

 Reduce TBR -> inhibition -> noradrenaline action.

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17
Q

Describe how Beta-adrenoreceptor Antagonists are used in treatment of hypertension

A
  • Beta-adrenoreceptor Antagonists (beta-Blockers)
     Decr. CO2,
     Decr. central activity -> Symapthetic nervous system
     Decr. release -> Renin
    -» Favourable secondary actions
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18
Q

Describe the risks associated with hypertension

A

 Risks:

  • Atherosclerosis
  • Stroke / Cerebrovascular Accident
  • Heart Failure
  • Renal Failure
  • Aneurysms
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19
Q

Describe Atherosclerosis

A

• Atherosclerosis:
 Narrowing of vessel lumen:
 Fibrous cap of dense extracellular matrix
Accumulation -> Plaque Formation:
 Lipids
 Macrophages
 Proinflammatory mediators
 White blood cells
 Endothelial cells
 Smooth muscle cells
&raquo_space; Arterial remodelling & neovessels occur -> compensatory enlargement
&raquo_space;Fragments of plaques can detach & lodge in small vessels
> Cause thrombosis
-» Restricts blood flow
> Lead to aneurysm formation & rupture

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20
Q

What is Atherosclerosis?

A

 Narrowing of vessel lumen:
 Fibrous cap of dense extracellular matrix
Accumulation -> Plaque Formation:

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21
Q

How is plaque formed in Atherosclerosis?

A 
Accumulation -> Plaque Formation:
	Lipids
	Macrophages
	Proinflammatory mediators
	White blood cells
	Endothelial cells 
	Smooth muscle cells
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22
Q

What does plaque formation cause in Atherosclerosis?

A

> > Arterial remodelling & neovessels occur -> compensatory enlargement
&raquo_space;Fragments of plaques can detach & lodge in small vessels
> Cause thrombosis
-» Restricts blood flow
> Lead to aneurysm formation & rupture

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23
Q

Describe thrombosis

A 
•	Thrombosis:
	Formation of blood clot in vein
-	Most common -> Deep Vein Thrombosis (DVP) -> legs
-	Pulmonary Embolism (PE) -> Lungs
            >> Swelling, Skin changes
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24
Q

What is thrombosis?

A

 Formation of blood clot in vein

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25
Where is thrombosis commonly found?
- Most common -> Deep Vein Thrombosis (DVP) -> legs | - Pulmonary Embolism (PE) -> Lungs
26
What does thrombosis cause?
>> Swelling, Skin changes
27
Name major diseases of the heart
* Ischaemic Heart Disease (Coranary Heart Disease -> CAD) * Valve defects: * Arrhythmias: * Chronic Heart Failure: * Aortic Disease:
28
Describe • Ischaemic Heart Disease (Coranary Heart Disease -> CAD)
• Ischaemic Heart Disease (Coranary Heart Disease -> CAD)  Leading cause of death -> Developed world  30% Males  23% Females  Common cause:  Atherosclerosis -> coronary artery  Most frequent -> Left anterior interventricular artery  Affects Left ventricle  Occurs  Insufficient Blood flow to myocardium >> Angina Pectoris (ischemia-induced pain) ->>Mediated by endogeneous vasodilators >> Results -> myocardial infarction ->> Death of heart muscle within 20 mins
29
How much of the population does • Ischaemic Heart Disease (Coranary Heart Disease -> CAD) affect?
 Leading cause of death -> Developed world  30% Males  23% Females
30
What are common causes of • Ischaemic Heart Disease (Coranary Heart Disease -> CAD)?
 Atherosclerosis -> coronary artery  Most frequent -> Left anterior interventricular artery  Occurs in Left ventricle  Insufficient Blood flow to myocardium >> Angina Pectoris (ischemia-induced pain) ->>Mediated by endogeneous vasodilators >> Results -> myocardial infarction ->> Death of heart muscle within 20 mins
31
Describe Valve defects of the heart
``` • Valve defects: 1. Regurgitation  Inadequate closure >> Backflow of blood > Causes Turbulence ->> Followed -> Decr. cardiac output 2. Stenosis  Inadequate opening >> Obstructs blood flow > Causes thickening of valve, papillary muscle / chordae tendiane (following disease) Eg. Rheumatic fever -> mitral valve stenosis up to 20yrs after infection. ```
32
What are the two types of valve defect of the heart?
1. Regurgitation | 2. Stenosis
33
Describe regurgitation valve defects of the heart
``` 1. Regurgitation  Inadequate closure >> Backflow of blood > Causes Turbulence ->> Followed -> Decr. cardiac output ```
34
Describe stenosis valve defects of the heart
2. Stenosis  Inadequate opening >> Obstructs blood flow > Causes thickening of valve, papillary muscle / chordae tendiane (following disease) Eg. Rheumatic fever -> mitral valve stenosis up to 20yrs after infection.
35
Describe arrhythmias
• Arrhythmias:  Deviation of heart’s normal sinus (SAN) rhythm.  Relatively rare -> 1 in 5000-10000  Found -> young individuals ; <25yrs  Many arise -> Defects in ion channels regulating ventricular action potentials  Cause spontaneous multiple depolarizations >> Ventricular arrythmias  Produce sustained abnormal rhythm  Asymptomatic  Palpitations  Dizziness  Syncope  Heart Failure  Sudden Death 1. Bradycarida:  Slow Rhythm (<60bpm) Causes:  Slowed signal -> sinus bradycardia  Pause / sinus arrest  Blockage >> Due to SAN / conducting tissue damage Treatment:  Artificial pacemaker 2. Tachycardia:  Fast Rhythm (>100bpm)  Sinus Tachycardia  Innapropriate Sinus Tachycardia (IST) Invlolves: >> Caffeine >> Amphetamines >> Overactive thyroid gland -> SNS  Non-sinus Tachycardia -> Addition of abnormal inpulses -> normal cycle > Uncontrolled twitching / quivering -> muscle fibres (fibrils) > Blood not removed from heart -> ventricular fibrillation > Sudden cardiac death Caused by: >> Automaticicity (enhanced pacemaker) >> Triggered Beats (Early / delayed depolarization) >> Re-entry Activity / Circus Activity (Conduction profile defects) >> Conduction Block >>Heart Damage ``` Pathology: >> Congenital Heart Disease >> Elecrocution Accidents >> Heart Injury >> Cardiomyopathies >> Heart Surgery >> Ischamia ```  Ectopic Action potential initiated in cardiac myocyte > Can lead to (mainly harmless) single premature beat SNS & hypoxia incr, automaticity.
36
Describe the characteristics of heart arrhythmias
• Arrhythmias:  Deviation of heart’s normal sinus (SAN) rhythm.  Relatively rare -> 1 in 5000-10000  Found -> young individuals ; <25yrs  Many arise -> Defects in ion channels regulating ventricular action potentials  Cause spontaneous multiple depolarizations >> Ventricular arrythmias  Produce sustained abnormal rhythm
37
Describe some of the symptoms associated with arrhythmias
```  Asymptomatic  Palpitations  Dizziness  Syncope  Heart Failure  Sudden Death ```
38
Describe the general way in which most arrhythmias arise
 Many arise -> Defects in ion channels regulating ventricular action potentials  Cause spontaneous multiple depolarizations >> Ventricular arrythmias  Produce sustained abnormal rhythm
39
Describe bradycardia
``` 1. Bradycarida:  Slow Rhythm (<60bpm) Causes:  Slowed signal -> sinus bradycardia  Pause / sinus arrest  Blockage >> Due to SAN / conducting tissue damage Treatment:  Artificial pacemaker ```
40
What is bradycardia?
Heart arrhythmia -> slow rhythm (<60bpm)
41
What is tachycardia?
Heart arrhythmia -> Fast Rhythm (>100bpm)
42
What are the causes of bradycardia?
``` Causes:  Slowed signal -> sinus bradycardia  Pause / sinus arrest  Blockage >> Due to SAN / conducting tissue damage ```
43
How is bradycardia treated?
Treatment: |  Artificial pacemaker
44
Name the types of tachycardia
1. Sinus Tachycardia  Innapropriate Sinus Tachycardia (IST) 2. Non-sinus Tachycardia
45
Describe Sinus Tachycardia & what it involves
```  Sinus Tachycardia  Innapropriate Sinus Tachycardia (IST) Invlolves: >> Caffeine >> Amphetamines >> Overactive thyroid gland -> SNS ```
46
Describe Non-sinus Tachycardia
 Non-sinus Tachycardia -> Addition of abnormal inpulses -> normal cycle > Uncontrolled twitching / quivering -> muscle fibres (fibrils) > Blood not removed from heart -> ventricular fibrillation > Sudden cardiac death Caused by: >> Automaticicity (enhanced pacemaker) >> Triggered Beats (Early / delayed depolarization) >> Re-entry Activity / Circus Activity (Conduction profile defects) >> Conduction Block >>Heart Damage ``` Pathology: >> Congenital Heart Disease >> Elecrocution Accidents >> Heart Injury >> Cardiomyopathies >> Heart Surgery >> Ischamia ```  Ectopic Action potential initiated in cardiac myocyte > Can lead to (mainly harmless) single premature beat SNS & hypoxia incr, automaticity.
47
What are the characteristics of Non-sinus tachycardia?
 Non-sinus Tachycardia -> Addition of abnormal inpulses -> normal cycle > Uncontrolled twitching / quivering -> muscle fibres (fibrils) > Blood not removed from heart -> ventricular fibrillation > Sudden cardiac death
48
What internal processes of the body is Non-sinus Tachycardia caused by?
Caused by: >> Automaticicity (enhanced pacemaker) >> Triggered Beats (Early / delayed depolarization) >> Re-entry Activity / Circus Activity (Conduction profile defects) >> Conduction Block >>Heart Damage
49
What are pathological causes of arrhythmias
``` Pathology: >> Congenital Heart Disease >> Elecrocution Accidents >> Heart Injury >> Cardiomyopathies >> Heart Surgery >> Ischamia ```
50
What does ectopic mean, and what can it cause?
 Ectopic Action potential initiated in cardiac myocyte > Can lead to (mainly harmless) single premature beat SNS & hypoxia incr, automaticity.
51
Describe Chronic Heart Failure
• Chronic Heart Failure:  Inadequate cardiac output -> Despite venous return  Due to: Decline in contractility Inability to develop forceful contracture  Diastole: > Inability to fill -> Stiff, thick chambers  Systole: > Inability to contract -> Stretched, thin chambers  Caused by: > Muscle damage Eg. CAD > Additional work of heart Eg. Hypertension > Valve defects  Causes: > Breathlessness & fatigue > Left Ventricular Failure: -> Fluid accumulation -> lungs due to congestion of veins in lungs > Right Ventricular Failure: -> Fluid accumulation -> especially in tissues of legs & abdominal organs due to incr. systemic capillary pressure.
52
What is Chronic heart failure?
• Chronic Heart Failure:  Inadequate cardiac output -> Despite venous return
53
What cardiac issues lead to chronic heart failure?
 Due to: Decline in contractility Inability to develop forceful contracture
54
Describe diastole & systole of the heart during Chronic Heart Failure
 Diastole: > Inability to fill -> Stiff, thick chambers  Insufficient blood causes overworking of heart >> Leads to stretching of heart muscle over time Stretched thin chambers -> insufficient generation of force on contraction  Systole: > Inability to contract -> Stretched, thin chambers
55
What is chronic heart failure caused by?
 Caused by: > Muscle damage Eg. CAD > Additional work of heart Eg. Hypertension > Valve defects
56
What is caused as a result of chronic heart failure?
 Causes: > Breathlessness & fatigue > Left Ventricular Failure: -> Fluid accumulation -> lungs due to congestion of veins in lungs > Right Ventricular Failure: -> Fluid accumulation -> especially in tissues of legs & abdominal organs due to incr. systemic capillary pressure.
57
Describe why left ventricular failure occurs
> Left Ventricular Failure: | -> Fluid accumulation -> lungs due to congestion of veins in lungs
58
Describe why right ventricular failure occurs
> Right Ventricular Failure: -> Fluid accumulation -> especially in tissues of legs & abdominal organs due to incr. systemic capillary pressure.
59
What does digitalis glycosides cause in relation to the heart?
• Digitalis Glycosides > Incr. force of contraction > Decreased vagal conduction
60
Describe aortic disease
• Aortic Disease:  Aortic aneurysm  Weakening of aortal wall >> Bulges outwards
61
How does a stroke occur?
• Stroke: |  Occurs as result of blockage -> blood supply to part of brain.
62
Describe the cause of coronary heart disease?
• Coronary Heart Disease:  Reduced flow / Blockage -> Oxygen rich blood to heart >> Atheroma (fatty material) accumulation -> coronary arteries
63
What is a common symptom of peripheral arterial disease?
• Peripheral arterial disease: |  Common symptom -> leg pain while walking.

Body Systems Y1 (22 decks)

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