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Anatomy and Physiology I Lecture > BLOOD > Flashcards

BLOOD Flashcards

1
Q

what are the components of the cardiovascular system?

A

blood, heart, and blood vessels

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2
Q

what are the formed elements in blood?

A

erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets.

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3
Q

whats the extracellular matrix in blood?

A

plasma

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4
Q

what is the primary function of blood and the other functions?

A

the primary function of blood is to deliver oxygen and nutrients to cells.
- transportation
- defense
- maintenance of homeostasis

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5
Q

explain the function of blood: transportation

A
  • nutrients from the food we eat are absorbed in the digestive tract. most of these travel in the bloodstream to the liver and then they are released back into the bloodstream for delivery to body cells
  • oxygen is transported in blood
  • endocrine glands release hormones into the bloodstream
  • blood transports waste too as well as carbon dioxide
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6
Q

explain the function of blood: defense

A
  • many types of leukocytes protect the body from external threats.
  • when damage to vessels results in bleeding, platelets interact to block the ruptured areas of the blood vessels involved protecting the body from further blood loss.
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7
Q

explain the function of blood: maintenance of homeostasis

A

when the body is too warm, blood vessels near the skins surface dilate to release heat and when the body is too cold, blood vessels constrict to retain heat.

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8
Q

what is the hematocrit test?

A

also called packed cell volume: it measures the volume percentage of red blood cells in a sample: it works by spinning the sample causing the heavier elements to separate from the liquid plasma.

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9
Q

what are the 3 layers of the tube?

A

red blood cells go to the bottom, middle is a thin layer of white blood cells and platelets. the top is the plasma which is mainly water.

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10
Q

what is the buffy coat?

A

the leukocytes and platelet/thrombocyte layer. it is called the buffy coat because of the color.
- it is normally less than 1% of a blood sample.

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11
Q

what is the volume of erythrocytes after centrifugation called?

A

packed cell volume.

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12
Q

normal hematocrit values?

A

45% in normal blood
normal for female: 37-47 with a mean of 41.
normal for male: 42-52 with a mean of 47.

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13
Q

what is the mean plasma percentage?

A

percentage of blood that is not erythrocytes.
female: 59%
male: 53%

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14
Q

why is blood red?

A

it is red due to hemoglobin. hemoglobin is an oxygen carrying compound in erythrocytes and it changes color depending on the degree of oxygen saturation.

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15
Q

texture, temperature, and pH of blood?

A

texture: blood is viscous and sticky. it is 5x more viscous than water. its viscosity is influenced by plasma proteins and formed elements in blood.
temperature: temperature of blood is 38 degrees celsius. as blood flows through the vessels there is some resistance and friction which produces heat.
pH: average is 7.4 but can be 7.35 to 7.45. blood is more alkaline than water which has a pH of 7.0.

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16
Q

how much of adult body weight does blood make up?

A

8% of body weight.
male: 5-6 L
female: 4-5 L

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17
Q

how much of plasma is made up of water? how much of the volume is made of proteins? how much of plasma is made of other solutes?

A

water: 92%
proteins: 7%
other solutes: 1%

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18
Q

what are the 3 main plasma proteins?

A

albumin, globulins, and fibrinogen

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19
Q

what is albumin?

A
  • albumin is the most abundant of the plasma proteins.
  • manufactured by the liver
  • they serve as binding proteins: transport vehicle for fatty acid/steroids. because lipids are hydrophobic so them binding to albumin enables their transport in watery plasma.
  • it also plays a big role in osmotic pressure of blood because it draws water into the bloodstream.
  • 54% of total plasma protein content.
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20
Q

what are globulins?

A

there are alpha beta and gamma globulins.
- alpha and beta globulins transport iron, lipids, and fat soluble vitamins such as vitamin A,D,E,K. they also contribute to osmotic pressure : PRODUCED BY LIVER.
- gamma globulins are proteins involved in immunity and also known as antibodies/immunoglobulins: PRODUCED BY LEUKOCYTES CALLED PLASMA CELLS
- make up 38% of total plasma

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21
Q

what is fibrinogen?

A
  • produced by the liver.
  • essential for blood clotting.
  • 7% of total plasma protein volume
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22
Q

what are other plasma solutes?

A

hormones, electrolytes, dissolved gases, organic nutrients, and metabolic waste.

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23
Q

what is the lifespan of formed elements?

A

rbc: 120 days
wbc: hours to days except leukocyte called a memory cell can live for years.
platelets: 7-10 days

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24
Q

what is hemopoiesis or hematopoiesis?

A

the production of the formed elements of blood.

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25
Q

where does hematopoiesis occur?

A

red marrow, a connective tissue within the spaces of spongy bone. in children it can occur in the medullary cavity of long bones but in adults the process is restricted to the cranial bones, pelvic bones, vertebrae, sternum, and proximal epiphyses of femur and humerus

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26
Q

what are stem cells?

A

stem cells undergo mitosis and cytokinesis to produce daughter cells. one of the cells remains a stem cell and the other differentiates into diverse cell types.

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27
Q

development from stem cells to precursor cells to mature cells is initiated by?

A

hematopoietic growth factors

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28
Q

what is erythropoietin?

A

erythropoietin is the growth factor responsible for the production of erythrocytes.
- it is a hormone secreted by kidneys i response to low oxygen levels.
- some athletes use synthetic EPO as a performance enhancing drug to increase rbc levels. it can also be used for anemia.

29
Q

what are erythrocytes anyways? basic information about them

A

red blood cell.
- most common formed element
- single drop of blood contains millions of erythrocytes.
- males have: 5.4 million erythrocyte per microlitre and females have 4.8 million erythrocytes per microlitre
- erythrocytes make up 25% of all cells in the body.
- diameter of 7-8 micrometers.
- small bioconcave discs: shape provides greater surface area for gas exchange to occur.
- lack organelles
- they can change shape to squeeze through capillaries
- life span is 120 days

30
Q

what is the primary function of erythrocytes?

A

picking up inhaled oxygen from lungs and transport it to body tissues and pick up carbon dioxide from tissues and transport to lungs for exhalation.

31
Q

what is hemoglobin?

A

hemoglobin is a large molecule made up of proteins and iron. it consists of 4 folded chains of a protein called globin.
- alpha 1
- alpha 2
- beta 1
- beta 2
each of these globin molecules is bound to a red pigment called heme which contains an ion of iron.
- each iron ion can bind to one oxygen molecule so each hemoglobin molecule can transport 4 oxygen molecules.

32
Q

what does ineffective hematopoiesis result in?

A

insufficient numbers of erythrocytes and results in one of several forms of anemia.

33
Q

what is polycythemia?

A

overproduction of erythrocytes: this leads to increased viscosity of the blood making it more difficult for the heart to circulate the blood.

34
Q

how can polycythemia occur?

A

it can occur in a person who is dehydrated because when water intake is inadequate or water loss is excessive, plasma volume falls and as a result, hematocrit rises.

35
Q

what is polycythemia vera?

A

it causes an excessive production of immature erythrocytes. it can dangerously elevate viscosity of blood making bp really high and making it difficult for the heart to pump blood to the body.
- occurs most often in men over 60

36
Q

what are leukocytes anyways? basic information about them

A
  • there are far less leukocytes than erythrocytes: 5000-10000 leukocytes per microlitre of blood.
  • larger than erythrocytes
  • contain a nucleus and organelles.
  • some have a way shorter life span than erythrocytes(120 days)
  • erythrocytes circulate in blood vessels but leukocytes leave the blood to perform defensive functions in the bodys tissues.
37
Q

leukocytes can be divided into 2 groups which are?

A

granular leukocytes: neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils
agranular leukocytes: monocytes, lymphocytes

38
Q

what is the most common leukocyte and some information about it?

A

neutrophils are the most common: 50-70% of total leukocyte count.
- the nucleus has 2-5 lobes but increase with age
- lifespan of minutes to days
- granules stain best with neutral stain.

39
Q

what is the function of neutrophils?

A
  • rapid responders to site of infection and phagocytes for bacteria.
  • the granules of neutrophils include lysozomes(enzyme that is capable of breaking down bacterial cell walls) and defensins which are proteins that bind to and puncture bacterial/fungal plasma membranes causing the cell contents to leak out
40
Q

what does elevated and decreased levels of neutrophils mean?

A

elevated: infection or inflammation. also found in burn patients because more neutrophils are needed to fight off infection that results from the destruction of the barrier of the skin.
decreased: drug toxicity

41
Q

what are eosinophils?

A

2-4% of total leukocytes.
- granules of eosinophils include antihistamine molecules. some grnaules may also contain molecules toxic to parasitic worms.
- granules stain best with acidic stain: eosin

42
Q

what does elevated and decreased levels of eosinophils mean?

A

high: allergies, parasitic worm infestations, autoimmune diseases.
low: drug toxicity and stress

43
Q

what are basophils?

A

least common leukocyte: less than 1%.
- granules stain best with basic/alkaline stains.
- intensify the inflammatory response
- granules release histamine which contribute to inflammation and heparin which opposes blood clotting.

44
Q

what does elevated and decreased levels of basophils mean?

A

high: allergies, parasitic infections, and hypothyroidism
low: pregnancy, stress, and hyperthyroidism

45
Q

what are lymphocytes?

A

lymphocytes are the primary cells of immune responses.
- only formed element of blood that arises from lymphoid stem cells.
- lymphocytes are the second most common leukocyte accounting for 20-30% of all leukocytes.

46
Q

what does elevated and decreased levels of lymphocytes mean?

A

high: viral infection or cancer
low: chronic illness, immunosuppression, drug therapy, hiv

47
Q

what are the different types of lymphocytes?

A

B LYMPHOCYTES, T LYMPHOCYTES, AND NATURAL KILLER CELL

48
Q

talk about b cells…

A
  • large sphere central nucleus surrounded by thin layer of cytoplasm
  • mature in red bone marrow
  • circulate blood and lymoh and reside in the spleen and lymph nodes.
49
Q

one form of b cells when activated becomes?

A

plasma cells:
- they contain a large amount of cytoplasm
- plasma cell forms from a naive b cell with the purpose of producing antibodies or immunoglobulins.
1. b cells can detect antigens on the surface of pathogens. when a b cell finds its matching antigen it becomes activated. once activated, b cell transforms into a plasma cell. the plasma cell produces and releases antibodies that travel through the body targeting pathogens and toxins for destruction. this process is known as humoral immunity.

50
Q

talk about t cells…

A
  • large spherical central nucleus surrounded by a thin layer of cytoplasm.
  • t cells mature in the thymus
  • circulate in blood and lymph and reside in the spleen and lymph nodes.
    t cells dont secrete antibodies.
  • t cells provide cell mediated immunity by physically attacking foreign or diseased cells.
51
Q

both b and t cells can differentiate to?

A

memory cells that form after exposure to a pathogen and they remember the pathogens: they live for many years

52
Q

what is a natural killer cell?

A

protects body from infection and tumors.

53
Q

what are monocytes?

A
  • represent 2-8% of the total leukocyte count.
  • originate from myeloid stem cells.
  • largest leukocyte
  • they are referred to as macrophages once they leave circulation.
  • they phagocytize debris, pathogens, dead or damaged cells.
  • they release antimicrobial defensins and chemicals that attract other leukocytes to site of infection.
54
Q

what does increased vs decreased monocytes mean?

A

high: viral or fungal infections, tuberculosis, leukemia.
low: suppression of bone marrow due to drugs or infiltration by tumor cells

55
Q

what are platelets?

A

platelets are essential for the repair of blood vessels when damage has occurred.
- also referred to as thrombocytes.
- they are cell fragments of a cell called megakaryocytes not a cell.
- small and there are 150000-160000 per microlitre of blood.
- they live for only 10 days

56
Q

what is thrombocytosis vs thrombocytopenia?

A

thrombocytosis is a condition in which there are too many platelets: this can cause blood clots which can be fatal.
thrombocytopenia is a condition in which there is an insufficient amount of platelets: this can cause excessive bleeding.

57
Q

what is hemostasis?

A

hemostasis is the process by which the body seals a ruptured blood vessel to prevent further loss of blood.
the 3 steps are:
1. vascular spasm
2. formation of a platelet plug
3. coagulation

58
Q

vascular spasm?

A

in vascular spasm, the smooth muscle of the walls of the blood vessel contract a lot.
- small blood vessels have smooth muscle in circular layers which constrict blood flow
- larger blood vessels have smooth muscle in longitudinal layers that draw the vessel back in surrounding tissue:(makes it hard to locate)
- vascular spasm is triggered by endothelins in response to vessel injury
- lasts for 30 minutes usually but can go on for hours.

59
Q

formation of the platelet plug?

A

in this step, platelets go to the area of the blood vessel rupture and they begin to clump together.
- a glycoprotein called willebrand factor helps the platelets stick and stabilize forming a platelet plug.
- as the platelets clump together they release:
ADP: attracts more platelets to the area making the plug bigger.
Serotonin: helps keep blood vessel constricted reducing blood flow.
Prostaglandins/Phospholipids: keep vessel constricted as well.
This is a temporary seal.

60
Q

coagulation?

A

coagulation is the formation of a blood clot and the third step in hemostasis.
- coagulation works like a chain reaction where one step leads to the next.
- the final product is a strong clot made from a protein called fibrin. fibrin forms a mesh that traps platelets and blood cells creating a solid plug that covers the wound.

61
Q

what are clotting factors?

A

clotting factors are chemicals in the blood that work together to form a blood clot.
- they are formed by the liver and platelets
- they usually need vitamin k to be made
- there are two pathways: extrinsic and intrinsic and they both merge into the third pathway called the common pathway.

62
Q

what is the extrinsic pathway?

A
  • also called the tissue factor pathway
  • quicker responding and more direct compared to intrinsic : events in this pathway take seconds
  • this pathway begins when damage occurs to the surrounding tissues such as traumatic injury.
  • the damaged extravascular cells set off a cascade of clotting factors which lead to the activation of factor X which activates the common pathway.
63
Q

what is the intrinsic pathway?

A
  • also called the contact activation pathway
  • longer and more complex than extrinsic.
  • this pathway begins when damage occurs to internal factors like the blood vessel itself. This then triggers a reaction between clotting factors and these reactions occur inside the bloodstream.
  • the damage causes the activation of factor XII which then triggers the activation of factor XI and then factor IX and factor VII which then activates factor X and then leads to the common pathway of coagulation.
64
Q

what happens at the common pathway?

A

fibrin is produced to seal off the vessel.
once factor X has been activated by either the intrinsic or extrinsic pathway, prothrombinase converts prothrombin into thrombin. thrombin converts fibrinogen into fibrin protein strands. FACTOR XIII stabilizes the fibrin clot.

65
Q

what is fibrinolysis?

A

to restore normal blood flow during healing, the clot must be removed. fibrinolysis is the degradation of the clot.
- plasminogen is converted into plasmin which breaks down the fibrin of the clot. BRADYKININ is released which is a vasodilator that reverses the effects of the serotonin and prostaglandins.

66
Q

what is an anticoagulant?

A

an anticoagulant is a substance that opposes coagulation.
- antithrombin inactivates factor x which opposes conversion of prothrombin to thrombin.
- heparin: opposes prothrombin
- aspirin also is an anticoagulant

67
Q

what is hemophilia?

A

genetic disorder characterized by inadequate production of clotting factors.

68
Q

what is an embolus?

A

when a portion of a thrombus breaks free from the vessel wall and enters circulation, it is called an embolus. when an embolus becomes trapped, it is called an embolism.

Anatomy and Physiology I Lecture (18 decks)

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