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Foundations of Health Sciences > Biochemistry and Metabolism > Flashcards

Biochemistry and Metabolism Flashcards

1
Q

What’s an electrolyte?

A

Salts, acids (release hydrogen) and bases (take up H+ ions)

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2
Q

What substanceses reduce blood acidity?

A

Bicarbonate and Ammonia help remove excess hydrogen to regulate pH

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3
Q

State types of macronutrients

A
  • Carbohydrates – sugars, starches containing C,H, O
  • Lipids – insoluble in water, contain C,H, O
  • Proteins – structural material. Enzymes, haemoglobin, muscles – contain amino acids
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4
Q

Chemical composition of glucose

A

C6H12O6

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5
Q

Molecular composition of triglycerides

A

3 fatty acid tails
1 glycerol

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6
Q

Composition of amino acids

A

An amine group and organic acid group

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7
Q

Define metabolism

A

All (bio)chemical reactions occurring in the body – inc catabolic and anabolic pathways

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8
Q

Whats a catabolic pathway?

A
  • Break down complex molecules to simpler ones
  • Exothermic – releases energy as heat and ATP
  • Waste products carbon dioxide and water
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9
Q

Whats an anabolic pathway?

A
  • Build up the complex molecules of life
  • Endothermic – requires energy input to form ATP
  • Storage of glucose in complex molecules
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10
Q

What is adenosine triosphosphate?

A
  • Only form of energy used to power cell activities
  • Temporary store of negry
  • Release in one step chemical reaction – ATP -> ADP + Pi
  • Adenine base, ribose sugar and 3 phosphate groups
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11
Q

Whats direct phosphorylation?

A
  • Using creatine phosphate – like ATP but less efficient
  • Quickly converts ADP to ATP by donating a phospahte group
  • Immediate energy stores in muscles
  • Not long term
  • Uses enzyme creatine kinase
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12
Q

What chemical is used in direct phosphorylation?

A

creatine phosphate

Using enzyme creatine kinase

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13
Q

Whats creatine kinase?

A
  • Enzyme catalysing direct phosphorylation
  • Trapped in Muscles (if muscle damage its lost in blood stream)
  • Diagnostic marker for myocardial infarction – increased CK
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14
Q

State ways to catabolise glucose

A
  • Obtained free due to blood glucose after a meal
  • Glycogenolysis – breakdown of glycogen stores in muscle or liver
  • Gluconeogenesis – formation of glucose from other nutrients in the liver – eg. proteins
    Can be catabolised completely:
    glucose and oxygen -> water + carbon dioxide + 38 ATP and heat
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15
Q

State the metabolic pathway for catabolism of glucose

A
  • Glycolysis (anaerobic pathway)
  • (Transition – crossing into the mitochondria)
  • Kreb cycle
  • Electron transport chain (aerobic pathway)
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16
Q

Explain the process of glycolysis

A
  • Both Aerobic and Anaebolic respiration
  • Cytosol (cristae)
  1. Glucose (6c) broken to 2 pyruvic acid (3c) in cytoplasm
  2. Use 2 ATP and form 4 ATP so net gain of 2ATP
  3. Metabolites are oxidised (H+ and e- removed)
  4. Picked up by NAD+ carrier which is reduced into 2 NADH + H+ (used in electron transport chain)
  5. In anaerobic respiration – no oxygen – the pyruvate becomes lactic acid as NADH+H+ is oxidised back to NAD+)
  6. In aerobic oxygen is present and continues to kreb cycle
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17
Q

Explain the process of krebs cycle

A
  • Mitochondria

Repeats twice for every molecule of glucose:
1. Acytlcoenzyme A (2C) binds with a 4C molecule to create citric acid (6C)
2. Carbon atoms removed as CO2 waste
3. 3 NAD+ are reduced to 3 NADH+H+ (taken to electron transport chain)
4. Carrier FAD reduced to FADH2 (Taken to electron transport chain)
5. 1 ATP also formed due to phosphorylation of ADP.

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17
Q

Explain the process of krebs cycle

A
  • Mitochondria

Repeats twice for every molecule of glucose:
1. Acytlcoenzyme A (2C) binds with a 4C molecule to create citric acid (6C)
2. Carbon atoms removed as CO2 waste
3. 3 NAD+ are reduced to 3 NADH+H+ (taken to electron transport chain)
4. Carrier FAD reduced to FADH2 (Taken to electron transport chain)
5. 1 ATP also formed due to phosphorylation of ADP.

18
Q

Explain the process of the electron transport chain

A

(oxidative phosphorylation)
- Mitochondria

  1. NADH+H+ and FADH2 pass hydrogen and electrons to
  2. Each NADH+H+ - 3ATP formed
  3. FADH2 carrier leads to 2 ATP formed
  4. These are oxidised and regenerated
  5. Hydrogens pass across protein pumps to intermembrane space by active transport
  6. Electron transport chain creates electrochemical gradient in mitochondrial membrane
  7. ATP synthase goes through chemiosmosis allowing hydrogens (protons) back to matrix – producing energy for condensation reaction ADP + Pi to ATP
  8. Oxygen used as terminal acceptor for electrons out the ETC and hydrogen out the ATP synthase to form water
    32 ATP in whole process
18
Q

Explain the process of the electron transport chain

A

(oxidative phosphorylation)
- Mitochondria

  1. NADH+H+ and FADH2 pass hydrogen and electrons to
  2. Each NADH+H+ - 3ATP formed
  3. FADH2 carrier leads to 2 ATP formed
  4. These are oxidised and regenerated
  5. Hydrogens pass across protein pumps to intermembrane space by active transport
  6. Electron transport chain creates electrochemical gradient in mitochondrial membrane
  7. ATP synthase goes through chemiosmosis allowing hydrogens (protons) back to matrix – producing energy for condensation reaction ADP + Pi to ATP
  8. Oxygen used as terminal acceptor for electrons out the ETC and hydrogen out the ATP synthase to form water
    32 ATP in whole process
19
Q

Whats transition including process?

A
  • Movement of pyruvic acid into mitochondria for kreb cycle
  1. Pyruvate dehydratase converts each pyruvate into acetyl-coenzyme A (3C to 2C molecule that is breathed out)
  2. Redox reaction as hydrogen removed (pyruvate is oxidised) pick up by NAD+ which is reduced from NADH+H+
  3. One molecule of CO2 is removed as waste
20
Q

What is NAD and FAD?

A
  • co enzymes
  • Glycolysis and krebs cycle include oxidation reaction (add O, remove H+ and e-)
  • NAD and FAD are acceptors of the hydrogen as they are reduced – this hydrogen can be used in the electron transport change for phosphorylation
21
Q

WHat are the products of glycolysis?

A

2ATP
2NADH + H+
After electron transport chin - 6ATP in aeobic respiration

22
Q

Whats teh products of formation of acetyl coenzyme A?

A

2NADH+ H+
6 ATP - after ETC

23
Q

What are the products of krebs cycle?

A

2ATP
6 NADPH + H+
2FADH2

After ETC - aerobic respiration
2ATP
18 ATP
4 ATP

24ATP total

24
Q

Whats the net ATP production after electron transport chain?

A

38 ATP

25
Q

How is fat catabolised?

A
  • Triglycerides
  • Glycerol can enter glycolysis, kreb and ETC
  • **3 Fatty acids – each have 16-18C **
    1. 2C fragments split off through enzymatic Beta-oxidation in mitochondira – all fatty acids hydrolysed into fragments (so much higher yeild of ATP as 16C = 8times kreb cycle)
    2. Each 2C converted to acetyl-conexyme A
    3. If enough O2 the fats go through kreb and ETC
26
Q

what is ketoacidosis?

A

high fat use acetyl-coenxyme A is converted to ketones

27
Q

What do ketones do?

A
  • Makes blood more acidic as reduced availability of carbohydrates
  • Happens in low carb diets – starvation and uncontrolled diabetes mellitus
  • Effects – kussmul repiration (deep, fats). Ketone breath (pears). Ketones in urine and eventually coma and death
28
Q

How are proteins catabolised?

A
  • Used when others are unavailble or in prolonged exercise
    1. Liver – amine group is removed from amino acid – deamination
    2. This is converted to ammonia by gaining a H+ ion then to urea and excreted
    3. Remaining part of molecules converted to pyruvic acid or acetyl-coenzyme A – for kreb and ETC
29
Q

Whats the absoptive state?

A
  • Following digestion when nutrients are being absorbed into blood stream (4 hours after meal)
  • Anabolism is this storage (still needs ATP)
  • Excess glucose stored as glycogen – glycogenesis
  • Excess fats, amino acids and excess glycogen conveted to fats via lipogenesis
  • Insulin is a key hormone in this state – to decrease blood glucose levels
30
Q

WHats lipolysis?

A
  • Excess fats, amino acids and excess glycogen conveted to fats
31
Q

Whats the post-absoprtive state?

A
  • Fasting state following absoption
  • As body relies on fuel stores to meet demands wnd maintain blood glucose lveles – 4-7mmol/L
  • Glycogenolysis – break glycogen to glucose
  • Lipolysis – fats, others to trigluycerides
  • Glyconeogenesis – lactic acids, glycerol, amino acids, klactate to make glucose
  • Key hormone of glucogon to increase blood glucose levels
32
Q

Whats the main hormone in absoptive state?

A

INsulin
to decrease blood glucose levels

33
Q

Whats the main hormone in post-absoptive state?

A

Glucogen
To increase blood glucose levels

34
Q

Whats does the anabolic hormone insulin do?

A
  • Insulin – to lower blood glucose levels
  • Promote glucose uptake in cells
  • Promotes glycogenesis – making glycogen
  • Inhibits glycogenolysis – breal glycogen
  • Promotes lipogenesis – glucose to triglycerides
  • **Promotes protein synthesis **
35
Q

What does the anabolic hormone glucagon do?

A
  • To increase blood glucose levels
  • Promote glucose release
    - Promotes glyogenolysis – break down glycogen
    -** Inhibit glycogenesis **– formation of glycogen
  • **Promotes lipolysis – glucose from triglycerides
    -     Promotes protein catabolism **
36
Q

State some catabolic hormones

A
  1. Epinephrine
  2. Cortisol
  3. Thyroid hormone
37
Q

State two anabolic hormones

A
  1. insulin
  2. glucagon
38
Q

What does epinephrine do as a catabolic hormone?

A
  • Released due to stress and exercide
  • Increase glycogenolysis
  • Increases lipolysis
39
Q

What does cortisol do as a catabolic hormone?

A
  • Response to long term stress and prolonged exercise
  • Increase gluconeogenesis
  • Increases protein catabolism
  • Increases lopolysis
40
Q

What does the thyroid hormone do as a catabolic hormone?

A
  • Response to exercise
  • Increases lipolysis and enhances beta oxidation
  • Increases glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis
41
Q

What effect do diets have on respiration rates?

A
  • Lower insulin levels – increased fats used for energy lipolysis – increased ketones
    -** Reduced glycogenesi**s as no glycogen stores
  • Reduced protein syntehsis **
    -     Increased hepatic glucose release **
  • Elecated levels of glucagon and cortisol – increased lipolysis, amino acid catabolism and gluconeogenesis – break down body proteins

Foundations of Health Sciences (30 decks)

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