bio regents Flashcards
homeostasis is…
the ability of an organism to maintain a stable internal balanced environment.
Failure to maintain homeostasis can result in
SICKNESS or DEATH
Organic molecules contain
structures of carbon with hydrogen and oxygen.
Carbohydrates (starch) is a __________ _________.
The basic unit of carbohydrates is
Organic Molecule
Glucose (Simple Sugars)
Proteins are ________ ______.
The basic unit of proteins are
organic molecules
amino acid
Lipids are _________ ________
The basic unit of lipids are
organic molecules
fatty acids and glycerol
Nuceleic Acid are ______ ________
The basic unit of Nucleic Acid is
Organic Molecules
Nucleotide
Organization of living things
[smallest to biggest]
[smallest] Cells > Tissues > Organs > Organ Systems > Organism [biggest]
Organelles are
the small parts that make up a cell (each has at least one specific function)
Vacuoles store
waste and water
(large in plant cells, small in animal cells)
Ribosomes are
where proteins are made
(very small and is often represented by a dot)
Mitochondria
Site of cellular respiration in both plant and animal cells.
Formula for cellular respiration:
Glucose + oxygen > carbon dioxide + water + ENERGY (ATP)
Chloroplasts
in plant cells; where the process of photosynthesis occurs.
Formula for photosynthesis:
Sun’s energy + carbon dioxide + water > glucose + water + oxygen
Nucleus is
the control center of the cell and contains DNA (the program or code of life)
Cytoplasm
is the liquid media that fills the cell.
Cell Membrane
- separates the contents of the cell from the outside environment
- controls the transport of materials into and out of the cell.(selective permeability)
Cellular communication:
Recognize and response to chemical signals by using receptor molecules.
Passive Transport or Diffusion is
the movement of molecules from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration. (NO ENERGY USED)
Active Transport
the moving a molecule from LOWconcentration to a HIGH concentration (USES ENERGY in the form of ATP).
Digestive System
What it does: breaks down food into nutrients & puts them in the blood stream
Parts of the system: mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum
Circulatory System:
What it does: carries gasses and nutrients throughout the body
Parts of the system: heart, arteries, veins, capillaries
Respiratory System
What it does: exchanges carbon dioxide and oxygen
Parts of the system: lungs, alveoli, diaphragm
Excretory System
What it does: removes wastes from the blood and then from the body
Parts of the system: kidneys, bladder, urethra
Nervous System
What it does: Fast control of the functioning of all body systems.
Parts of the system: brain, spinal cord, nerve cells
Endocrine System:
What it does: Slow control of the functioning of all body systems.
Parts of the system: Pituitary, Thyroid, Adrenal, Pancreas, Gonads
Control -
Chemicals produced in the endocrine glands (HORMONES) and chemicals produced by nerve cells are primarily responsible for communication between cells.
Respiration is
the process used by ALL organisms to produce energy by using oxygen to burn sugar in order to release energy in the form of (ATP).
Organelle used in this process: Mitochondria
Digestion-
breaking large molecules down into smaller molecules.
Transport -
involves the movement of materials inside the cell as well as the movement between parts of a multicellular organism.
Excretion -
the removal of all waste produced by the cells of the body.
Synthesis is
the making or building of large molecules from smaller ones.
Photosynthesis is
the process of storing the energy from the sun in the chemical bonds of glucose (sugar)
Organelle used in this process: Chloroplast
Formula for Photosynthesis:
Sun + Carbon Dioxide + Water ——–enzymes——> Glucose + Oxygen + Water
Where is photosynthesis carried out?
Chloroplasts of Producers (plants)
Where is photosynthesis carried out?
Chloroplasts of Producers (plants)
Cellular Respiration occurs in
the Mitochondria of All Organisms both plants and animals
Formula for Cellular Respiration:
Glucose + Oxygen ———–enzymes———> Carbon Dioxide + Water + Energy (ATP)
Enzymes
-special proteins that affect the rate of chemical reactions
Enzyme reaction rates are affected by:
Shape
Temperature
pH
Dynamic Equilibrium is
a steady state-balance- : HOMEOSTASIS
Negative Feedback controls
hormone levels to maintain homeostasis.
When glucose (sugar) levels are above normal the pancreas secretes
INSULIN. This hormone prompts glucose to
move from the blood into body cells, resulting in a lower
glucose level in the blood. Another hormone secreted by the
pancreas (glucagon) works in the opposite way. When the
glucose level in the blood is too low, this hormone prompts
the release of glucose stored in the liver which raises BLOOD
SUGAR LEVEL.
Our Skin and Circulation Systems are the body’s
primary defense against disease-causing pathogens.
(Immunity) via White blood cells
Surface Receptor Protein-
a molecule found on the cell membrane that the immune system recognizes as either part of the body or an outside invader.
Antigens are
the receptor proteins on the membrane of pathogens (germs).
Antibodies are
special proteins produced by the white blood cells that can be thought of as your body’s army to fight diseases.
- Antibodies have specific shapes that fit over specific antigens
- When an antibody fits into the antigen (receptor on the pathogen) it blocks communication
preventing the pathogen from reproducing and making you sick.
Immunity is our body’s
ability to fight disease. Once you have been exposed to a specific virus white blood cells remember the antigens and produce antibodies that prevent you from getting sick from the same
virus or bacteria for the second time.
Vaccination is composed of
a weakened or dead virus or bacteria that triggers our white blood cells to produce antibodies to fight a specific pathogen.
Diseases are caused by
pathogens (virus, bacterium, and fungus or protists)
Cell Division Two types
mitosis and meiosis
Mitotic division
- Asexual reproduction
-ONE cell division 1 —> 2 cells
-Parent cell divides equally to produce 2 identical daughter cells
-Genetic makeup identical to parent : 2n – Diploid
Function: To produce Identical cells
used for growth and repair.
Meiotic division
-Sexual reproduction
-TWO cell divisions 1 4 cells
-Parent cell divides twice to produce
either 4 sperm cells or (female) 3
polar bodies + 1 Egg (ovum)
-Genetic makeup 1/2 of the parent cell
1n – Haploid
Function: To produce sex cells with ½
of the species chromosome number.
Mitosis is used for
growth, repair and asexual reproduction.
Meiosis occurs only in
the male and female gonads and solely produces gametes.
Gonads are
the sex glands. (Ovaries and Testis)
Gametes are
sex cells that unite in fertilization to form a ZYGOTE.
Zygote is
a fertilized egg.
Fertilization is when
a male and female gamete unite.
If the gametes each have 23 chromosomes, then
what does their zygote have?
46 chromosomes
Differentiation is the process
that transforms developing unspecialized cells into specialized cells with different structures and functions. Tissues are specialized groups of cells.
Human female reproductive system:
Vagina -
birth canal
Uterus is where
the baby develops
Ovaries are the
female gonads that produce the egg and important female hormones
Oviducts or fallopian tubes are
the place where fertilization occurs
Testis is
the male gonads that produce sperm and male hormones like testosterone.
Artificial insemination:
using sperm from a donor
Amniocentesis:
removing some of the cells from the amniotic fluid which protects the fetus and analyzing their DNA.
Karyotype
a visual map of chromosomes. Can be used to see if the fetus has any chromosomal problems like Down’s syndrome
Cancer occurs when
certain genetic mutations in a cell can result in uncontrolled cell division
Cancer can be caused either by
heredity or environmental factors like radiation, chemicals or virus.
Heredity is
the passing of genetic information from one generation to the next through reproduction.
The hereditary information DNA is organized in the form of genes located in the
Nucleus of each cell.
Asexual reproduction
-Identical Cells
-1 Parent
-Little Genetic Variation
-Ex) Ameba, Paramecium, Fungi
-MITOSIS
Sexual reproduction
-Not Identical Cells
-2 Parents
-Much Genetic Variation
-Ex) Humans, Plants
-Meiosis and Fertilization
Identical genetic copies are known as
Clones
DNA is
a double stranded helix polymer of nucleotides that contains the genetic code of the individual.
Nucleotide is
the basic unit of DNA which is made of a Phosphate, a Sugar and a Base.
DNA bases are
A, T, G, C
A IS PAIRED WITH
T
G IS PAIRED WITH
C
RNA is
a single stranded polymer that is produced by DNA.
- There are 3 types: Messenger RNA, Transfer RNA and Ribosomal RNA
- Bases are A, U, G, C. Notice there is no T in RNA base code rule
How does DNA use RNA to make a protein?
Protein Synthesis
Protein Synthesis:
DNA is stuck in the nucleus, so it sends a messenger single- stranded m RNA to the ribosome where the Ribosme reads the message and directs the t RNA (TRUCKS) to bring it Amino Acids. The Ribosome then assembles the Amino Acids together in the correct order TO MAKE A PROTEIN.
Mutation is
any alteration of the DNA sequence which changes the normal message carried by the gene.
Substitution-
ONE BASE IS PUT IN THE PLACE OF ANOTHER
Deletion-
A BASE IS LEFT OUT
Addition
A BASE IS ADDED
Inversion-
BASES ARE SWITCHED
Gene Expression
An organism’s environment can affect the way that some genes are expressed.
Genetic Engineering is
is a technology that humans use to alter the genetic instructions in organisms
Gene Splicing is
cutting DNA using restriction enzymes and placing it into another organism
Restriction Enzyme is
an enzyme that cuts DNA in specific places and is an essential tool in gene splicing as well as in Gel-electrophoresis.
Selective Breeding is
a process of picking parents with favorable traits to produce those traits in the offspring.
Example: domestic animals and hybridization of plants.
Species is
a group of closely related organisms that share certain characteristics and can produce offspring capable of reproduction.
Evolution is the process
which organisms have changed over time from simple, single-celled: complex-single-celled: complex, multicellular to complex organisms.
Natural Selection -
nature selects those individuals who are best fit for the environment.
Overproduction -
more offspring are produced than can survive
Competition -
the fight for limited resources
Variation -
differences among organisms in a species (sexually reproducing organisms have more variation than asexually reproducing organisms)
Adaptive Value
Any trait that helps an organism survive and reproduce under a given set of environmental conditions
Extinction is
the disappearance of an entire species caused by a failure to adapt to a changing environment.
Extinction occurs when the Environment changes and the Species cannot adapt.
ANCESTRY:
cladograms or family tree shows common ancestory
Ecology is
the study of how organisms interact with the living and nonliving things.
Biotic factors:
Biotic factors: are living parts of the ecosystem. Example: Plants and animals.
Abiotic factors
non-living parts of the environment (rocks, air, pH, sunlight)
Niche
a species’ role in it’s environment (it’s JOB and what it EATS)
Population-
all the organisms of a species that live in the same area.
Community -
all the different populations in an area.
Biosphere
all of earth’s ecosystems
Competition -
the struggle for resources among organisms.
Limiting Factors are
the living and non living things in the environment that limit the size of populations.
Examples: Food, Shelter, Sun, Space, Oxygen, ETC.
Carrying Capacity is
the maximum population (number of organisms of any species) that an ecosystem can support.
Predators
kill and eat other organisms called Prey
Autotrophs -
(producers) make their own food by photosynthesis
Heterotrophs -
- must eat something for food (consumers)
Herbivores -
can only eat plants
Carnivores -
can only eat animals
Omnivores -
can eat plants & animals
Consumers -
same as heterotrophs
Decomposers -
break organisms down and return nutrients to the soil. They are the recyclers in the ecosystem
Scavengers -
eat dead organisms that they did not kill themselves
example: vultures
Parasites -
live off of another organism (host) and do not kill them usually (the parasite benefits, the host is harmed)
Producers -
same as autotrophs
Food Chain is
diagram of the linear feeding relationship of organisms in an ecosystem.
Rules in Drawing a Food Chain:
- All food chains begin with a Producer (Autotroph or Plant)
- All food chains end with a Decomposer
- Arrows in a food chain show the direction of the energy flow
Food Web is
a diagram composed of many interlocking food chains. It
is more accurate than a food chain because most organisms eat more than one type of food in their environment)
The Sun is
the primary source of life’s energy on the earth.
Energy Pyramid is a
diagram showing the energy available at each
trophic level. The bottom layer (Producers) has the greatest amount of energy and the amount of energy Decreases by 90% at each level as you move UP though the pyramid.
Where does the energy go? Into the environment (Lost as heat)
**Energy is not recycled in an ecosystem it is transferred from one trophic level to the next.
Self Sustaining Ecosystem Requires:
- a constant source of energy ( usually the SUN )
- a process to capture the energy and store it in organic molecules. (Photosynthesis)
- a way to recycle elements back to the ecosystem. (Decomposers)
Ecological Succession is
the orderly sequence of changes in the communities living in a given ecosystem
over time.
Material Cycles
- Carbon/ Oxygen Cycle (photosynthesis/Respiration)
- Water Cycle (Evaporation, Condensation, Precipitation, Transpiration)
- Nitrogen Cycle (N2, nitrogen fixing bacteria, plants, animals, waste)
Biodiversity is
a measurement of the degree to which species vary within an ecosystem. The more species present in an ecosystem the higher the biodiversity.
As biodiversity increases,
the stability of an ecosystem increases.
How man has affected biodiversity?
- Cutting down trees (for wood)
- Planting all of the same crop in an area (loss of biodiversity)
- Removed vegetation for houses, parking lots, roads, etc.
- Killed organisms and destroyed the food web (because all organisms are linked to one another in
one way or another
Renewable Resources
resources that can replenish themselves if not abused (planting of trees)
Nonrenewable Resources -
resources that take a long time to replace or form (like coal, oil)
Pollution is
a harmful change in the chemical makeup of the air, water, or soil.
Pollution is
a harmful change in the chemical makeup of the air, water, or soil.
the destruction or loss of a species by over hunting.
Land Use
finding the best way to live in the environment- building around trees instead of cutting them down and planting new ones.
Habitat Destruction
destroying a part of the natural environment.
Deforestation
removing forests for wood or clearing trees for farms.
impact of technology and industrialization:
- Industrialization- increases pollution of air and water- uses more energy, water, fossil and nuclear
fuels. - Water pollution-from sewage, wastes from homes and factories and animal wastes
- Toxic wastes- DDT
- Thermal pollution- Heat Pollution
- Human overpopulation
- Air pollution- burning fossil fuels
Acid Rain-
Sulfur and nitrogen compounds in air pollution dissolve in the moisture of the atmosphere to form acids, causing rain to have a low pH (acidic).
Acid rain kills trees and destroys historical artifacts.
Global Warming -
an increase in the earth’s temperature caused by an increase in greenhouse gases (GREENHOUSE EFFECT is caused by increasing amounts of CO2 in the atmosphere caused by the increasing
use of fossil fuels for energy).
Ozone Depletion-
hole in ozone layer caused by use of fluorocarbons.
**Ozone acts as a Sun block for all organisms on the earth!!!
UV causes skin cancer.
Independent Variable is
the one thing that “I change” to test my hypothesis.
Dependant Variable is
the thing that changes because of the IV (DATA collected)
Control Group is
the group that is studied under the normal conditions.
Experimental Group is
the group that is identical to the control group with the ONE CHANGE or difference (the Independent Variable).
How can you make an experiment more valid?
- Repeat the experiment
- Increase the number of specimens or trials.
- Peer review
Parts of the microscope
Eyepiece:
the part that you look through (closest to the eye) usually 10x
Parts of the microscope
Objective Lens:
the magnifying part closest to the slide
(high power = usually 40x; low power = usually 10x)
Parts of the microscope
Fine Adjustment Knob:
used to focus on low & high power
Parts of the microscope
Course Adjustment Knob:
used to focus only on low power
Parts of the microscope
Stage:
where the slide is placed
Parts of the microscope
Stage Clips:
hold the slide in place
Parts of the microscope
Diaphragm:
controls the amount of light used
How to calculate total magnification:
if a microscope has a 10X eyepiece, and 10X and 40X objectives.
Total Magnification on low power: 10 X 10 = 100X (it looks 100 times bigger than real life)
————————————-
Total magnification on high power: 10 X 40 = 400X (it looks 400 times bigger than real life)
If you looked at the letter [e] under a microscope, what would it look like?
- Mirror image and flipped upside down.
- Increasing magnification reduces the field. (Larger image but you see less of it)
- Increasing the magnification reduces the amount of light. (Field darkens)
How to make a wet mount slide:
Put the cells on the center of a slide, put a drop of water with a dropper onto the cells (do not touch the cells); lower a cover slip slowly at an angle (to reduce the number of air bubbles)
Paper Chromatography is
a laboratory technique that is used to separate different molecules from one another. (Separation of compounds in a solution by size and color).
Gel electrophoresis
A technique used to show how species are related to one another.
separation of DNA using electrical current by size
Dichotomous Keys:
tools to help in the classification of organisms.
Making Connections (The Clothespin Lab)
Part A
1. What you did:
- What you learned:
- What you did: measured how exercise affected pulse rate.
- What you learned: exercise increases pulse rate
Making Connections (The Clothespin Lab)
Part A2
1. What you did:
- What you learned:
- What you did:
-Squeezed a clothespin for 1 minute, then squeezed it again for another minute - What you learned:
-If you squeezed more the second round, it may have been because your finger muscles were “warmed up” from increased circulation.
-If you squeezed less the second round, it may have been because your finger muscles were fatigued.
Making Connections (The Clothespin Lab)
Part B
1. What you did:
- What you learned:
- What you did: Designed an experiment to test how exercise affects squeezing a clothespin.
- What you learned: How to design an experiment
Relationships and Biodiversity (Botana curus lab)
A) What you did:
B) What you learned:
A) What you did:
-Compared 4 species of plants, based on structural (physical) and molecular (chemical and genetic) traits.
B) What you learned:
- Species that are related share similar traits.
- Different techniques (such as gel electrophoresis and paper chromatography) can be used to determine relationships between organisms.
- Endangered species should be protected because they may offer benefits to humans.
Restriction enzymes
cut DNA into fragments, which are placed into a well in a gel plate.
An electric current carries the DNA fragments through the gel, separating them according to size (smaller pieces of DNA are carried farther from the well than larger pieces). This creates a pattern of
bands which is unique for every organism.
Beaks of Finches
A) What you did:
B) What you learned:
A) What you did:
Played finches with different beak characteristics competing for food.
B) What you learned:
-Different environmental conditions (food) favored different species of finch (beaks), allowing some to survive and reproduce, but not others. (Survival of the fittest)
-Natural selection, competition and variation drive evolution. (Species change over time)
Diffusion Through A Membrane
Part A
- What you did:
- What you saw:
- What you learned:
- What you did:
-Made a model cell using dialysis tubing.
-Put glucose and starch inside your “cell.”
-Put starch indicator (iodine) outside cell
- What you saw:
-Inside of cell turned black because iodine diffused into the cell
-Because outside of the cell was not black, you know the starch did not diffuse through the
membrane.
-Used blue glucose indicator (Benedict’s solution) to see that glucose did diffuse through the
membrane. Remember to heat Benedicts to see if glucose is present. - What you learned
-Small molecules (glucose, iodine) can diffuse through a membrane on their own.
-Large molecule (starch) cannot diffuse through a membrane on their own.
-You can use indicators to identify the presence of specific substances.
Diffusion Through A Membrane
Part B
- What you did:
- What you saw:
- What you learned:
- What you did:
-Looked at red onion cells under the microscope.
-Added salt water to the onion cells.
-Added distilled (pure) water to the onion cells. - What you saw:
-Salt water caused the onion cells to shrivel and peel away from their cell walls.
-Distilled water causes the cells to swell back to normal. - What you learned:
-Salt water causes water to diffuse out of a cell.
-In pure (distilled) water, water will diffuse into a cell.
