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Romano Review > Bio Chapter 3 - Metabolism > Flashcards

Bio Chapter 3 - Metabolism Flashcards

1
Q

Glycolysis

A

Glucose - > 2 molecules of pyruvate. Occurs in the cytosol. Net gain 2 ATP.
Anaerobic metabolism is the only energy source in the mammalian red blood cells.

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2
Q

Glycolysis/ Anaerobic respiration

A

Glucose + 2 Pi + 2 ADP + 2 NAD+ —> 2 pyruvate + 2 ATP + 2 NADH + 2H + + 2H20

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3
Q

Glycolysis step 1

A

Endergonic. Though coupled with ATP hydrolysis which is exergonic. Irreversible first step of the pathway. Uses a kinase to catalyze transfer of a phosphate group.

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4
Q

Glycolysis 3 part strategy

A
  1. Phosphorylates glucose, forming G6P
  2. Converts low energy phosphates to high energy phosphates
  3. High energy phosphates convert ADP to ATP
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5
Q

Glycolysis Step 2

A

Glucose -> Fructose
Aldohexose -> Ketohexose
Using Isomerase

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6
Q

Glycolysis Step 3,4

A

Add on another phosphate group by Kinase phosphofructokinase. F1,6,BisP lysis apart in a reverse aldol.

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7
Q

Dehydrogenase

A 
NAD+, NADH, FAD, FADH2
Subclass of enzymes called oxidoreductases involved in oxid-reduc reactions.
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8
Q

Substrate level phosphorylation in glycolysis

A

Formation of ATP or GTP by direct transfer of a PO3 group. Step 6, break even point for ATP.

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9
Q

Mutase in glycolysis

A

Belongs to the class of enzymes isomers, Step 7.

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10
Q

Step 8 in glycolysis

A

Form a high energy molecule Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) in dehydration reaction.

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11
Q

Step 9 in glycolysis

A

PEP transfers PO3 group to ADP. Substrate level phosphorylation catalyzed by a kinase. Get (pyruvate + ATP) x2.

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12
Q

Step 5 Glycolysis

A

2NADH made from 2NAD+

to be sent to ETC

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13
Q

Fermentation

A

Pyruvate is reduced and NADH is oxidized.

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14
Q

Krebs/TCA/CAC Cycle outline

A

Occurs in the matrix of the mitochondria. Aerobic respiration. Pyruvate combines with Coenzyme A + NAD+ in an oxidative decarboxylation step.
Requires B1, B2, and B3 vitamins.

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15
Q

Acetyl Coenzyme A reaction

A

Pyruvate + Coenzyme A(HSCoA) + NAD+ -> Acetyle coenzyme A + CO2 + NADH
HSCoA is a dehydrogenase. Functional group = Thioester.

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16
Q

Krebs/TCA/CAC Cycle bottom line

A

TCA cycle dismantles acetyl groups converting them into CO2 and H+. The H+ goes into the ETC to produce ATP.

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17
Q

3 B Vitamins in Krebs/TCA/CAC Cycle

A

B1 Thiamine, B2 Riboflavin, and B3 Niacin

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18
Q

Krebs/TCA/CAC and enzymes exists where and what exception?

A

Matrix of the mitochondria. Succinic dehydrogenase is the exception in the inner mitochondrial membrane- site of ETC.

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19
Q

Krebs/TCA/CAC process in 3 steps

A

1) Acetyl CoA goes into the cycle and reacts with oxaloacetate to give citrate
2) 2 turns occur
3) Each turn gives 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, 1 GTP

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20
Q

Krebs/TCA/CAC intermediates

A

Porphoryins and even pyrimidine nucleotides for biosynthesis.

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21
Q

Krebs/TCA/CAC ATP synthesis

A

Substrate level phosphrylation when succinyl CoA synthase converts succinyl CoA to succinate.
Energy comes from hydrolysis of the thioester bond, exergonic reaction.

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22
Q

Alternative source of Acetyl CoA

A

Lipids can be oxidized into Acetyl CoA during beta oxidation and some aa can be made into Acetyl CoA.

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23
Q

ETC

A

90% of the ATP generation. Inner mitochondrial membrane. Complex series of oxida-reduc reactions.
NADH about 3 ATP
FADH2 about 2 ATP

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24
Q

ETC Complexes

A

Complex I accepts e- from NADH. FADH2 brings e- to Complex II.

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25
Q

As e- move down the ETC

A

Conformation changes in the inner membrane that allows for the H+ to be pumped into the intermembrane space from the matrix.
Oxidative phosphorylation. Increases pH on the inside and decreases it on the outside.

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26
Q

ATP synthase

A

1) Electrons add to O2 to form H20

2) ADP + Pi ->

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27
Q

Oxidative phosphorylation

A

Occurs in the inner portion of the mitochondria.

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28
Q

Basis of the chemiosomotic hypothesis

A

Ion gradients represent a high energy state which can be used to drive endergonic processes.
Oxidative phosphorylation by ETC. Electron transport leads to a proton gradient which flows back into the mitochondrion through ATPase, used to synthesize ATP.

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29
Q

CoQ or Ubiqunione

A

Lipid soluble electron carrier. Receives e- from Complex II and Complex I and passes to Comp III.

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30
Q

Gluconeogenesis

A

Synthesis of glucose from noncarbohydrate precursors. E.g lactate, aa, or glycerol. Occurs in plants, animals fungi, bacteria, and microorgs.

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31
Q

Gluconeogenesis occurs during

A

Stavariont, Low carb diets, fasting, and intense exercise.

Occurs mainly in the liver and small amount in the cortex of kidney.

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32
Q

Gluconeogenesis begins in the

A

Mitochondria then goes to cytosol. Many reactions are the reverse of glucolysis.

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33
Q

Can fat be used in gluconeogenesis?

A

Most carbons in fat is not convertable into Actyl CoA. Glycerol backbone can be used.
Biotin is involved in adding CO2 to pyruvate to get oxaloactate.

34
Q

Cori cycle

A

Gluconeogenesis is responsible for taking lactate produced during anaerobic metabolism and converting it into glucose in the liver.

35
Q

Glycolysis vs gluconeogenesis

A

When ATP is needed, glucolysis is active; when there is little need for ATP, gluconeogenesis is more active.

36
Q

Starvation

A

3 months before we die. Carbohydrates will exhaust within one day. The brain can not tolerate low glucose levels for a short time. The brain and RBC are dependent on this fuel.

37
Q

First day of starvation

A

Decreased secretion of insulin and increase secretion of glucagon.
Triglycerides in adipose tissue and gluconeogenesis by the liver are the dominant processes. Muscle now shifts from glucose to fatty acids for fuel.
Beta oxidation of fatty acids halts the formation of Actyl CoA from pyruvate.

38
Q

2-3 days of starvation

A

Large amounts of ketone bodies are formed by the liver are released into the blood. Used by the heart for fuel.
The brain uses acetoactate in place of glucose.

39
Q

Ketone bodies

A

Made from Acteyl CoA. Since during starvation the TCA cycle is unable to oxidize the acetyl units formed from fatty acid breakdown.

40
Q

After ketone depletion

A

Protein is used. Death results from loss of organ function.

41
Q

DM compared to starvation

A

Glucose is not oxidized, thus fatty acids must be oxidized to compensate for the unavailable energy. Ketone bodies are formed, ketosis.

42
Q

Prolonged ketosis

A

Acidosis. If blood pH is below 7.35

43
Q

Pentose Phosphate pathway main

A

Anabolic. Two main pathways:

1) Provides NADPH- reductive biosynthesis of lipds
2) Provides Ribose 5 phosphate- nucleotide and nucleic acid biosynthesis

44
Q

Penthose Phosphate pathway/Pentose Shunt or Hexose monophosphate pathway

A

All reactions occur in the cytosol.
Active in adipose tissue. NADPH is used to make fatty acids and steroids. Tissues such as the adrenals, liver, and adipose tissue have an abundance of enzymes of this pathway.
Glucose 6 phosphate has other routes than glycolysis.

45
Q

Glyoxylate cycle

A

TCA/Kreb cycle modification in plants using acetate. enzymes of this cycle are found in organelles called glyoxysomes.
Allows seeds to grow in the dark/underground where photosynthesis is not possible.

46
Q

Glyoxylate cycle main

A

Takes Actyl CoA into succinate for the synthesis of carbohydrate.

47
Q

Glycogen

A

Storage form of glucose. Mainly found in liver and skeletal muscle. Most gluecose are alpha 1,4-glucosidic bonds. Branches are alpha 1,6 glycosidic bonds.

48
Q

Glycogen branching

A

1) Makes polymers more compact
2) Makes polymers more H20 soluble
3) Produces more terminal glucose residues

49
Q

Glycogenolysis

A

Breakdown of glycogen. Release of glycogen into the liver due to low levels of glucose into G6P. Raises glucose levels in blood.

50
Q

In muscle, G6P enters glycolysis

A

directly rather than being delivered to the blood.

51
Q

Glycogen is synthesize from ___ and store within __ as

A

G6P, liver and skeletal muscle, glycogen granules.

52
Q

Excess Amino acids

A

Cannot be stored. Used as metabolic fuel.

NH2 is daminated and used to form urea.

53
Q

Amino acids carbon skeletons can be broken down into

A 
A) Actyl CoA
B) Acetoacetyl CoA
C) Pyruvate
D) TCA cycle intermediates
Fatty acids, ketone bodies, and glucose can be made from amino acids.
54
Q

AA examples made into pyrvuate

A

Ser, Alan, Threon, Cyste

55
Q

AA examples made into a ketoglutarate (TCA cycle intermediate)

A

Prol, Glutam

56
Q

Phenylketouria (PKU)

A

Phenylalanine is made into aa tyrosine. In PKU, tyrosine is missing. Phenylalanine builds up in the blood and urea resulting mental retardation. Brain weight is below average and myelination of nerves is defective.

57
Q

Fatty Acid Oxidation

A

Fatty acids can be oxidized to yield large quantities of ATP. Fatty acid oxidation (beta oxidation) occurs in the mitochondrial matrix. Start in the outer mitochondrial membrane and is oxidized in the matrix of the mitochondria.

58
Q

Carnitine

A

Carries activated fatty acids across the mitochondria membrane. Gives us Actyl CoA, NADH, FADH2, Metabolic water.

59
Q

Fatty Acid Synthesis

A

Cytosol. Fatty acids are made from Acetyl CoA. Apart of triglycerides and phosphotriglycerides.

60
Q

Cholesterol

A

Synthesized from Acetyl CoA. Modulates the fluidity of eukaryotic cell membranes. Cholesterol is the precursor of steroid hormones like cortisol, progesterone, testosterone, and estradiol.

61
Q

Steroids

A

Are nonhydrolyzable lipids.

62
Q

Principle site for the synthesis of cholesterol

A

Liver

63
Q

Cholesterol function

A

Also involved in the synthesis of bile acids. Assisting inthe absorption of dietary lipids in the intestine. Bile acids deprotonated to bile slats. Also emulsifies fats.

64
Q

Too much cholesterol

A

Can be lethal. When cholesterol percentage in bile gets too high, precipitation occurs forming gallstones. It can block the entrance to the duodenum, losing the ability to digest fats. Bile pigments enter the blood and skin becomes jaundiced.
Also associated with heart disease.

65
Q

Bilirubin

A

Pigment found in bile. It gives color to bile and stool. Bilirubin is excreted in bile and urine and is the main cause of jaundice. Bilirubin can be conjugated with glucuronic acid to become more water soluble. Has functions as an antioxidant.

66
Q

The Urea Cycle

A

Central pathway in Nitrogen Metabolism. Catabolism and anabolism of aa is linked to TCA/Krebs cycle.

67
Q

Urea Cycle premise

A

Most vertebrates, NH4+ is made into urea and excreted. NH3 is highly toxic. The cycle occurs mainly in the liver where urea is produced, then released into the blood
on it’s way to the kidneys to be excreted.

68
Q

NH3 in the urea cycle

A

Carbamoylphosphate and requires 2 ATP molecules. This process requires ATP and does not produce it.

69
Q

Enzymatic reactions in the Uric Cycle

A

A) a Mitochondrial reaction
B) others are cytosolic
Fumarate is produce in this cycle and is an intermediate in the TCA cycle and is returned there.

70
Q

Hyperammonemia

A

Elevated NH4+

Can cause brain damage, coma, and death in infants

71
Q

Different Nitrogenous Wastes in different classes

A
  1. Terrestrial animals and mature amphibians: Urea
  2. Fish and Marine: Ammonia
  3. Reptiles, birds, and Insects: Uric Acid
72
Q

Photosynthesis equation

A

6Carbon dioxide + 6Water -(light)> Sugar + 6Oxygen

73
Q

Photosynthesis chlorophyll

A

Green pigment located in chloroplasts which absorbs light energy. Chlorophyll resides in the thylakoid membranes.
Chlorophylls and carotenoids are the pigments that absorb light.

74
Q

Photosynthetic reactions

A

Light Reaction: uses light for ATP production

Dark reaction: sugar making

75
Q

Light Reaction

A

ATP, O2 and NADPH are made
Occurs in the grana (membranous bodies stacked)
H2) is split by sunlight releasing the O2(oxidative process).

76
Q

Dark Reactions/ Calvin Benson Cycle

A

CO2 enters the stomates to produce 3 carbon PGAL. Carbon fixation occurs (in the stroma). Main enzyme Rubisco ( most abundant protein in nature).
6 molecules of CO2 per one molecule of glucose.

77
Q

Photosynthesis highlights

A

Efficiency of 30%. Vital to life on Earth. Redox reaction which H+ gradient is formed across a membrane.

78
Q

Chloroplasts and mitochondria

A

Endosymbionts

Small prokaryotic organisms that began to live inside large cells.

79
Q

Electron paths photosynthesis

A

Noncyclic photphosphorylation and Cyclic photophosphorylation

80
Q

Noncyclic photophosphorylation

A

e- that two ETC to prduce ATP and NADPH. Chemiososis same as in mitochondria. Light required.
NADPH from this path is sent to Calvin cycle.

81
Q

Cyclic photophosphorylation

A

Consumes fair amount ATP. Only produces ATP.

82
Q

Dark Reactions/ Calvin Benson Cycle summary

A 
A) Carbon fixation occurs-  sugar making
B) ATP is used
C) 6 turns
D) NADPH is oxidized
E) Rubisco is regenered.
CO2 is attached to Rubisco. Being unstable it splits to 2 molecules of phosphoglycerate.
Or.
Phase 1: Carbon fixation
Phase 2: Reduction
Phase 3: Regen of ribulose

Romano Review (38 decks)

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