anthropological theories Flashcards
L. H. Morgan - Contribution to Evolutionary Study
American lawyer, Classical evolutionary thinker
Lewis Henry Morgan made significant contributions to evolutionary study. Here are five heading phrases summarizing his contributions:
- Social Evolution: Evolutionary Stages in Human Societies
- Kinship and Descent Systems: Comparative Analysis
- Cultural Anthropology: Ethnographic Methodology
- Material Culture: Technological Development
- Theoretical Framework: Evolutionary Progression
Evolution of Kinship Terminology (L. H. Morgan)book
Title: \System of Consanguinity and Affinities of Human Family" (1871)
Evolution of Whole/Entire Society (L. H. Morgan book
Title: \Ancient Society" (1877)
Evolution of Marriage (Family) (L. H. Morgan)
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Stages: Promiscuity, Consanguinous marriage, Punaluan marriage, Syndasmian marriage, Patriarchal marriage, Monogamous marriage
Evolution of Political Organization (L. H. Morgan)
Types: Societus (political system dependent on kinship),
Civitus (political system independent of kinship)
Criticism of Morgan’s Contributions
Critiques: Conjecturalism, Secondary data,
Achievement: Some approximating field work
Contribution of Frazer to Classical Evolutionism
James Frazer: English anthropologist, Works: \Golden Bough" and "Totemism and Exogamy"”
Evolution of Science (Frazer)
Sequence: Magic -> Religion -> Science
Theory of Totemism (Frazer)BOOK
Works: \Golden Bough"
Impact and Criticism of Frazer
Impact: Evolutionist in the 20th century, Critique: Lack of significant impact due to discrediting of evolution
Criticism of Classical Evolutionism
Critiques: Lack of proper data, Ignorance of other processes of social change (e.g., diffusion), Conjecturalism
Criticisms by Westermarck family
Specific Critique: Monogamy and nuclear families in simple societies
Criticisms by Franz Boas
Critiques: Lack of data collection, Introduction of fieldwork tradition, Empirical approach in anthropology
Criticisms by Diffusionists
Critiques: Neglect of diffusion as a way of cultural change, Neglect of human invention and creativity
Criticisms by Functionalism
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Marxism:
- Ignores class struggle and economic inequalities
- Overlooks exploitation and power imbalances
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Symbolic Interactionism:
- Neglects individual agency and micro-level interactions
- Too deterministic, ignoring subjective experiences
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Feminism:
- Fails to address gender inequalities and patriarchy
- Overlooks women’s roles and experiences
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Postmodernism:
- Overemphasizes stability, ignoring fluid and fragmented social realities
- Too rigid and fails to account for diversity and multiplicity of perspectives
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Conflict Theory:
- Ignores ongoing societal conflicts and tensions
- Overlooks the role of power struggles in shaping society
Criticisms Against Psychic Unity
Critique: Lack of proof for the theory of psychic unity of mankind
Criticisms Against Comparative Method
Critique: Equating contemporary primitive societies with prehistoric societies
Criticisms Related to Victorian Society
Critique: Considering Victorian society as the highest stage of development (ethnocentrism)
Criticisms Against Progressive Evolution
Critique: Evolution as change rather than progressive or retrogressive
Historical Particularism of Boas - Franz Boas
Developed historical particularism, Criticized ethnocentrism of evolutionism
Premises of Historical Particularism (Boas)
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Overcoming empirical problems,
Detailed regional studies,
Discovering distribution of cultural traits,
Understanding individual processes of cultural change,
Reconstructing histories,
Meticulous collection and organization of ethnographic data,
Generalizing about cultural development after gathering information on particulars
Methodology of Historical Particularism (Boas)
Studying local history, Long stay with local people, Learning local language
Nature of Historical Particularism
Approach to understanding the nature of culture and change in a particular culture, Emphasis on data collection before making assumptions or interpretations
Data Collection in Historical Particularism
Recording oral history tradition, Participant observation
Accomplishments of Historical Particularism (Boas)
Importance of data collection, Fieldwork studies
Criticism of Historical Particularism (Boas)
Reluctance to generate broad theories of cultural development, Questioning the point of gathering detailed data without broader theoretical frameworks
Emergence and Reaction to Classical Evolutionism - Similarities
Both British and German schools emerged as reactions to classical evolutionism.
Criticized classical evolutionism for neglecting societal change.
Diffusion and Evolution Relationship - Similarities
Both schools asserted that diffusion and evolution are interconnected processes. Common Premises: Unequal inventiveness of the human mind. Displacement of people for better opportunities leading to cultural contact and diffusion.
Nature of Diffusion - Differences
British School (Extreme Diffusionism): Led by Smith, Perry, and Rivers’ school. Emphasized extreme diffusionism.
German School (Multiple Centers of Diffusionism): Advocated multiple centers of diffusionism. Recognized various sources of origin.
Source of Cultural Diffusion - Differences
British School (Single Source of Origin): Smith and Perry proposed a single source of origin.
German School (Multiple Sources of Origin): Rivers suggested multiple sources for cultural diffusion.
Criteria for Diffusion - Differences
British School (No Criteria): Did not establish specific criteria for diffusion.
German School (Criteria of Forms and Quantity): Considered both forms and quantity as criteria for diffusion.
Objectives of Diffusionism - Differences
British School (Show and Trace Path of Diffusion): Aimed to show and trace the unfettered path of diffusion from the center to various parts of the world.
German School (Demonstrate Occurrence of Diffusion): Focused on demonstrating the occurrence of diffusion.
Attention to Cultural Aspects - Differences diffusion school
British School (only Material Culture): Emphasized material culture and neglected non-material culture.
German School (Both Material and Non-Material Culture): Paid attention to both material and non-material aspects of culture.
Typology of Diffusion - Differences
British School (No Typology): Did not establish a typology of diffusion.
German School (Distinction between Types): Made a distinction between direct/primary and indirect/secondary diffusion.
Relationship with Evolution - Differences
British School (Isolation): Gave importance to the evolution and diffusion of culture in isolation.
German School (Integration): Attempted to integrate evolution with the diffusion of cultural traits. Addressed sociocultural change from simple to complex and discussed the diffusion of cultural traits.
American School of Diffusionism in Anthropology - Historical Background
Boas & Wissler. Influence and Link with German School.
Rejection of Morgan’s Three-Stage Classification
Boas and Wissler rejected Morgan’s three-stage classification of savagery, barbarism, and civilization.
Influenced by German museum methodology, they classified cultural elements from the same geographic region together.
Development of Culture Area Concept
Cultural items of American Indian tribes living close to each other were found to be more similar
. The concept of ‘Culture Area’ emerged from this observation, first used by O. T. Mason.
Further developed by Clark Wissler, attributing similarities in culture areas to diffusion.
Premises/Features of Culture Area - Definition of Culture Area
A geographical zone with several groups living together, showing cultural similarity when grouped together.
Premises/Features of Culture Area - Culture Centre
Each culture area has a central point called ‘Culture Centre’ with the greatest concentration of culture. Culture Centre controls the entire area politically, socially, and in terms of economy, politics, and religion.
Premises/Features of Culture Area - Diffusion from Culture Centre
Cultural traits spread centrifugally from the Culture Centre. Traits are not diffused within the same area but spread from one culture area to another.
Premises/Features of Culture Area - Greatest Concentration of Traits
Culture Centre is where the greatest concentration of cultural traits exists in their pristine form.
Construction of Culture Area: Food as Criterion - Basis for Constructing Culture Area
Food as a criterion for constructing Culture Area.
Each American Indian tribe, having its own myth of origin, inhabits a specific eco-zone.
Construction of Culture Area: Food as Criterion - Wissler’s Food Areas and Culture Areas
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Wissler used food as a criterion and identified 6 Food Areas corresponding to Culture Areas:
Bison: Great Plains,
Caribou: Eskimos,
Salmon fish: North Pacific Coast to Plateau,
Wild seed: California,
Maize: Eastern part of America,
Intensive agriculture: Indian group of Western America, South West America, Peru
Technology and Environment
People exploit their environment with technology. Technology is invented based on the driving force of their environment, especially concerning food.
Cultural Evolution - Definition
Process of social and cultural change from simple to complex, moving from homogeneity to heterogeneity.
Cultural Evolution - Nature
More complicated compared to Cultural Diffusion.
Cultural Evolution - Process
Occurs by alteration, invention, or diffusion of cultural elements. Evolution may or may not aid diffusion.
Cultural Evolution - Nature of evolution
To change existing simpler items and complexes in a society to a more complex order.
Cultural Diffusion - Definition
Process where cultural elements, complexes, and aspects pass from one group to another.
Cultural Diffusion - Nature
Simple in nature compared to Cultural Evolution.
Cultural Diffusion - Process
Occurs only by borrowing of cultural elements. Diffusion definitely aids evolution.
Cultural Diffusion - Result
Adds more new items to a culture or society.
Bronislaw Malinowski - Theory
Biocultural/Psychological Functionalism.
Bronislaw Malinowski -studied influencedby
Studied Australian aborigines. Influenced by Golden Bough.
Bronislaw Malinowski - Premises
Individual needs,
hierarchy of needs,
importance to culture.
Bronislaw Malinowski - Methodology
Biological and integrative needs.
Bronislaw Malinowski - Background
Psychologist turned anthropologist after reading James Frazer’s book.
A.R. Radcliffe-Brown - Theory
Structural Functionalism.
A.R. Radcliffe-Brown - Studies
Studied Andamanese. Influenced by sociologists, mainly Durkheim.
A.R. Radcliffe-Brown - Premises
Social needs, necessary conditions of existence, importance of society.
A.R. Radcliffe-Brown - Methodology
Social structure and function.
A.R. Radcliffe-Brown - Background
Earlier an evolutionist, turned to diffusionism, and finally became a functionalist.
Claude Levi-Strauss - Historical Background
Coined the term ‘social structure.’ Influenced by Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim, and A.R. Radcliffe-Brown.
Claude Levi-Strauss - Premises
Society has a basic structure (mind), variations due to permutations of basic structure elements.
Claude Levi-Strauss - Methodology
Applied language as a model.
Used phonemes in linguistics as a model for society.
Claude Levi-Strauss - Four Basic Operations in Study of Society
- Similar to structural linguistics.
- Elements of meaning in kin terms.
- Integration to acquire meaning.
- Built on the subconscious level.
Claude Levi-Strauss - Evaluation
Criticized for its ambitious plan to find universal propositions of human mind. Lost popularity due to lack of focus on social change.
Introduction to National Character Study - National character studies
Culture and personality studies.
Complex cultures.
National character.
Studies of culture at a distance.
Purpose of National Character Studies -
- Guidance for government and military policy
- Cooperation among wartime allies.
- Post-war world planning.
Theoretical Origin of National Character Studies - Configurationalist approach (Sapir and Benedict)
Basic personality structure (Linton and Kardiner).
Modal personality approach (Cora DuBois).
Techniques of National Character Studies - Study of culture at a distance
- Indirect research.
- Reminiscences and interviews.
- Analysis of literature, cartoons, articles, and photographs.
Major Works of National Character Studies - Differentiating Japanese and Chinese characters
Studies on cultures of France, Spain, Czechoslovakia, Poland, etc. Key scholars: Ruth Benedict, Margaret Mead, Geoffrey Gorer.
Margaret Mead?s Approaches - Analysis of relationships and basic learning
Societal studies of interpersonal relationships.
Comparative descriptions of cultural configurations.
Basic Personality Traits - Working minority traits
Erich Fromm’s view on discipline, orderliness, and punctuality.
Contribution of National Character Studies - Socialization beyond infancy
Effect of national discourses on personal character.
Contribution to the understanding of the rise of nations and international relations.
Analysis of National Character Studies - Social Darwinism
Criticism for homogeneity and over-generalization.
Geoffrey Gorer’s ‘swaddling hypothesis’.
Introduction to Ruth Benedict’s Contribution - Culture-personality scholar
Concept of ‘culture pattern’. Foundation of personalities in anthropology.
Historical Background of Ruth Benedict - Student of Franz Boas
Emphasis on understanding patterned culture.
Development of ‘Culture Pattern’ concept in ‘Pattern of Culture’.
Concept of Culture Pattern - Cultural traits
Cultural complexes. Integration into a ‘culture pattern’. Linking cultural complexes to form patterns.
Methodology of Study - Fieldwork and comparative study mm
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Comparison of American tribes.
Identification of Apollonian and Dionysian patterns.
Later merging Paranoid with Dionysian.
Apollonian and Dionysian Patterns - Apollonian
Docile, emphasis on sharing, non-aggressive.
Apollonian and Dionysian Patterns - Dionysian
Aggressive, competitive, luxurious lifestyle.
Recognition of diverse personality patterns.
Criticism of Ruth Benedict’s Work - Critique by Morris Oppler
Diversity of cultural themes
. Plurality of cultural ideas.
Support for Ruth Benedict - Support from Margaret Mead
Foundation of different personalities under cultural impact.
Margaret Mead’s Contribution to Anthropology - Culture-personality school proponent
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Student of Franz Boas.
Support for Ruth Benedict’s work.
Study of socialization impact on behavior.
Margaret Mead’s Contribution to Anthropology - Mead’s Books and Findings
‘Coming of Age in Samoa’. Adolescence marked with stress. Samoa’s different view on bodily changes. American crisis due to cultural prohibition.
‘Sex and Temperament’. Comparison of Arapesh, Mundugumor, Tshamhole. Different central values in each culture. Human nature shaped by culture.
Margaret Mead’s Contribution to Anthropology - Evaluation of Mead’s Work
Ethnographic nature of work.
Showing cultural practices influence personality.
Ralph Linton’s Cultural Background of Personality - Division into overt and covert culture
Overt culture: Material and Kinaesthetical
. Covert culture: Core of culture.
Core-Periphery Hypothesis.
Ralph Linton’s Cultural Background of Personality - Linton’s Core Periphery Hypothesis
Change at the core affects the culture.
Peripheral change is more acceptable.
Culture influencing personality.
Introduction of psycho-dynamism.
Kardiner’s Contribution to Culture-Personality School - ‘Psychological Frontier of Society’ book
Common personality due to shared socialization.
Basic Personality Type.
Study of primary and secondary institutions.
Impact of culture on collective personality.
Cora-du Bois? Contribution to Culture-Personality School - WWII context
Study of culture at a distance.
Projective technique.
Modal personality approach.
Cora-du Bois? Contribution to Culture-Personality School - Modal personality characteristics
Application by other anthropologists.
Cora-du Bois? Contribution to Culture-Personality School - Application by other anthropologists
V. G. Childe’s Contribution to Neo-evolutionism.
V. G. Childe’s Contribution to Neo-evolutionism - Archaeologist
‘Man Makes Himself’ book. Division of archaeological periods.
V. G. Childe’s Contribution to Neo-evolutionism - Cultural periods
Savagery, Barbarism, Civilization. Progression of tools. Emphasis on material aspects.
Leslie White’s Contribution to Neo-evolutionism - Background
Boasian dissatisfaction. Universal standard of measurement.
Leslie White’s Contribution to Neo-evolutionism - Culture as behavior manipulating energy
Laws of evolution. Technological theory of evolution.
Leslie White’s Contribution to Neo-evolutionism - Criticism
Neglect of particular cultures and environment.
Unilinear Evolution
Sequence from simple to complex.
Psychic unity of mankind.
Progressive and disregards cultural diversity.
Universal Evolution
Part of neo-evolutionism.
Evolution of mankind’s culture as a whole.
Successive stages, not always progressive.
Multilinear Evolution
No single line of evolution.
Many lines, each with unique characteristics
. Emphasis on particular cultures.
Accepts cultural variation and diversity.
Contribution of Julian Steward to Neo-evolutionism - Introduction
Critic of Leslie White. Focused on particular evolution.
Contribution of Julian Steward to Neo-evolutionism - Evolution Types
Unilinear: Classical evolutionists, psychic unity, progressive. Universal: Neo-evolutionism, mankind’s culture as a whole, stages.
Multilinear: Many lines, environment impact, cultural diversity.
Contribution of Julian Steward to Neo-evolutionism - Promises of Julian Steward
Economic system as the core of culture.
Cultural ecology and multilinear evolution.
Contribution of Julian Steward to Neo-evolutionism - Methodology
Relation between man, environment, and economic system. Study of differential environments.
Contribution of Julian Steward to Neo-evolutionism - Criticism
Critics found direct relationships with environment beyond economic systems.
Contribution of Julian Steward to Neo-evolutionism - Conclusion
Cultural ecology and multilinear evolution contribute to holistic anthropology.
Nature of Evolution (Classical vs Neo Evolution)
Classical: Evolution of society and culture.
Neo: Rejuvenation of evolutionary study.
Period (Classical vs Neo Evolution)
Classical: Middle of the 19th century.
Neo: 3rd decade of the 20th century.
Scholars (Classical vs Neo Evolution)
Classical: Morgan, Tylor.frazer
Neo: White, Steward, Childe, Sahalin & Service.
Evidence (Classical vs Neo Evolution)
Classical: Study without evidence. Neo: Study with hard evidence.
Data (Classical vs Neo Evolution)
Classical: 2nd hand data, conjectural. Neo: First-hand data, no conjecturalism.
Diffusion (Classical vs Neo Evolution)
Classical: Did not consider diffusion. Neo: Considered diffusion in the study of evolution.
Types of Evolution (Classical vs Neo Evolution)
Classical: Unilinear.
Neo: Multilinear (Steward), Universal (White & Childe), General and Specific (Sahalin and Service).
Cultural Diversity (Classical vs Neo Evolution)
Classical: Absent due to unilinear evolution. Neo: Present due to multilinear evolution.
Psychic Unity (Classical vs Neo Evolution)
Classical: Accepted. Neo: Rejected.
Ethnocentrism (Classical vs Neo Evolution)
Classical: Victorian society is the highest stage. Neo: Did not explicitly state so.
Parallelism (Classical vs Neo Evolution)
Classical: Compared contemporary tribal society with prehistoric society.
Neo: Did not use the comparative method of study.
Criticism (Classical vs Neo Evolution)
Classical: Conjecturalism, psychic unity, lack of cultural diversity. Neo: Individual scholars criticized (e.g., White for macro-culturalism, Steward for ignoring the environment).
Classical Evolutionism
Gradual change from simple to complex
. Applies to cultural traits, institutions, or whole cultures.
Ceaseless process.
Anthropologist traces origin and sequence of evolution.
Neo-evolutionism
Shares premises with classical evolutionism.
Focuses on rejuvenation of evolutionary study.
Combines synchronic and diachronic approaches.
Differences between Classical Evolutionism and Neo-evolutionism
Nature of Evolution: Classical - Evolution of society and culture. Neo - Rejuvenation of evolutionary study. Period: Classical - Middle of the 19th century. Neo - 3rd decade of the 20th century. Scholars: Classical - Morgan, Tylor. Neo - White, Steward, Childe, Sahalin & Service. Evidence: Classical - Study without evidence. Neo - Study with hard evidence. Data: Classical - 2nd hand data, conjectural. Neo - First-hand data, no conjecturalism. Diffusion: Classical - Did not consider diffusion. Neo - Considered diffusion in the study of evolution. Types of Evolution: Classical - Unilinear. Neo - Multilinear (Steward), Universal (White & Childe), General and Specific (Sahalin and Service). Cultural Diversity: Classical - Absent due to unilinear evolution. Neo - Present due to multilinear evolution. Psychic Unity: Classical - Accepted. Neo - Rejected. Ethnocentrism: Classical - Victorian society is the highest stage. Neo - Did not explicitly state so. Parallelism: Classical - Compared contemporary tribal society with prehistoric society. Neo - Did not use the comparative method of study. Criticism: Classical - Conjecturalism, psychic unity, lack of cultural diversity. Neo - Individual scholars criticized (e.g., White for macro-culturalism, Steward for ignoring the environment).
Cultural Materialism Definition
Cultural Materialism: Change in culture is driven by changes in the material life of people. Developed by Marvin Harris in ‘The Rise of Anthropological Theories’ (1968).
Historical Background cm
Reaction against cultural relativism, idealism, and structuralism. Aims to create a pan-human science of society based on logical and evidential grounds.
Basic Premises of Cultural Materialism
Focus on explaining sociocultural change based on changes in material culture. Production and reproduction dominate other cultural sectors. Example: Women’s role in post-World War II USA.
Methodology of Cultural Materialism
Focuses on observable and quantifiable entities and events
. Studies organizational aspects of politics, economy, and ideological aspects.
Divides socio-cultural system into infrastructure, structure, and superstructure.
Infrastructure, Structure, and Superstructure
Infrastructure: Technology, practices for resource production.
Structure:Domestic (family structure) and political economy.
Superstructure: Philosophy, art, religion, values.
Changes in infrastructure lead to changes in structure and superstructure.
Symbolic Anthropology Definition
Symbolic Anthropology: Studies symbols and their interpretation in understanding culture. Emerged as a reaction against structuralism, materialism, and Marxism.
Historical Background symbolic
Reaction against structuralism, materialism, and Marxism. Symbolic anthropology studies how people understand their surroundings using symbols.
Symbolic Anthropology Premises
Focuses on symbols and their interpretation in human social life.
Views culture as an independent system of meanings deciphered through symbols.
Major scholars: Geertz, Turner, Schneider.
Methodologies of Symbolic Anthropology
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Cross-cultural comparison.
Literary-based approach over a science-based approach.
Focuses on culture as a whole, not isolated aspects.
Accomplishments of Symbolic Anthropology
Shifted focus to culture and interpretation.
Studied culture from an emic perspective.
Contributions from Geertz, Turner, and Schneider.
Criticism of Symbolic Anthropology
Criticized by Marxists for not explaining the system of symbolism.
Accused of being too subjective and scientifically untestable.
Defended by symbolic anthropologists against accusations from cultural ecologists.
E.B. Tylor
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British anthropologist, Father of British anthropology, Curator in London Museum, Pioneer in systematic study of anthropology, Evolutionism in Anthropology (E.B. Tylor)
Classical evolutionism
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Origin of religion, Animism, totemism, polytheism, monotheism
, Evolution of plough,
Three-stage classification of society (savagery, barbarism, civilization)
Origin of Religion (E.B. Tylor)
Primitive Culture, Animism, Dream-death experiences, Totemism, Criticisms of Tylor’s theory
Evolution of Plough (E.B. Tylor)
Plough evolution from digging stick
Contributions other than Evolution (E.B. Tylor)
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Definition of Culture, Gustav Clamn, Culture as a complex whole, Social transmission of culture
Linking Happiness with Montesquieu’s Classification (E.B. Tylor)
Three-stage classification of society, Savagery, barbarism, civilization, Happiness and moral qualities
Role in Use of Statistics in Anthropology (E.B. Tylor)
Statistical studies, Comparative study of 282 societies, Correlation between institutions, ‘Adhesion’ in relationships
Other Contributions (E.B. Tylor)
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First theory of why incest is prohibited,
Importance of statistical studies,
Claude Levi Strauss’s development of Tylor’s theory
Conclusion (E.B. Tylor)
Tylor’s significant contributions, Widely accepted definition of culture, Criticisms notwithstanding
