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Anatomy & Physiology (Test 2) Flashcards

1
Q

Cell Growth

A

-depends on using genetic information in DNA to make structural & functional proteins (protein synthesis) needed for cell survival

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2
Q

Cell Reproduction

A

-ensures that genetic information is passed from one generation to the next

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3
Q

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

A
  • contains genetic information that determines expression heritable traits
  • structure resembles a long, narrow, spiral staircase, referred to as a ‘double helix’
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4
Q

DNA ‘building blocks’

A
  • sugar (deoxyribose) & phosphate make up the sides
  • base pairs (A T) or (C G) make up the ‘steps’
  • always paired (A T) & (C G)—complimentary/obligary base pairing
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5
Q

Gene

A

-a specific segment/sequence of base pairs within a DNA molecule

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6
Q

Genes dictate formation of ______ & other proteins by ______.

A
  • enzymes

- ribosomes

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7
Q

Although the types of base pairs in all chromosomes are the same, the ______ varies.

A

-sequence

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8
Q

Each gene directs ______ function & protein synthesis.

A

-RNA

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9
Q

A human gene consists of approximately ______ base pairs (which contain the code for making one RNA molecule, which will be translated to make one ______).

A
  • 1000

- polypeptide

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10
Q

DNA in the nucleus contains the ‘master code’ for protein synthesis, which occurs in the ______.

A
  • cytoplasm
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11
Q

How does the ‘master code’

for protein synthesis get out of the nucleus & into the cytoplasm?

A

-with the help of various types of RNA, via the processes transcription & translation.

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12
Q

RNA (ribonucleic acid)

A
  • single stranded

- composed of sugar (ribose), phosphate & base pairs (C G & T U)

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13
Q

How does genetic information get from the nucleus to the cytoplasm?

A

1) transcription-

2) translation- occurs in the cytoplasm & involves mRNA, tRNA and rRNA

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14
Q

3 Types of RNA

A
  • mRNA: messenger RNA (coding RNA)
  • tRNA: transfer RNA (non coding RNA)
  • rRNA: ribosomal RNA (non coding RNA)
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15
Q

Transcription

A

-occurs in the nucleus between DNA & mRNA
-double stranded DNA unwinds or unzips
-single stranded mRNA forms along a segment of one strand of the unzipped DNA
mRNA is ‘edited’ & then moves into cytoplasm

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16
Q

Translation

A
  • occurs in the cytoplasm & involves mRNA, tRNA & rRNA
  • after leaving the nucleus & being edited, mRNA associated with a ribosome (which contains rRNA) in the cytoplasm
  • tRNA molecules then bring specific amino acids to the mRNA at the ribosome; the type of amino acid is determined by 3-base pair sequences called codons on the mRNA & anticodons on the tRNA
  • as amino acids are brought into place, peptide bonds join them, resulting in the creation of a polypeptide chain—>protein
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17
Q

Mitosis

A
  • when a cell is actively dividing
  • process in cell division that distributes identical chromosomes (DNA molecules) to each new ‘daughter’ cell that is formed when the original cell divides
  • enables cells to identically reproduce their own kind
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18
Q

Interphase

A

-when a cell is not actively dividing

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19
Q

Before a cell can divide (cell reproduction), it has to make a copy of it’s ______, so that it can be equally shared among the ______ ______.

A
  • DNA

- daughter cells

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20
Q

DNA Replication

A

-a process by which each half of a DNA molecule becomes a whole molecule identical to the original DNA molecule

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21
Q

Newly formed cells produce a variety of molecules & other substances required for growth/maintenance by using the ______ contained in DNA’s ______.

A
  • information

- genes

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22
Q

DNA unwinds, separates at a point between base pairs, and each ‘side’ ______ it’s ______ ______ until each strand is a whole one again (identical to the original). It the proceeds ______.

A
  • attracts
  • complementary base
  • mitosis
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23
Q

4 Stages of Mitosis

A

1) prophase
2) metaphase
3) anaphase
4) telophase

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24
Q

Fertilization of an ovum & sperm leads to a diploid cell, called a…

A

-zygote

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25
Q

How many chromosomes does a zygote get from each parent?

A
  • 23 from each parent

- 64 in total

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26
Q

Body cells (somatic cells/asexual cells) contain ______ chromosomes aka ‘diploid’ number of chromosomes.

A

46

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27
Q

22 homologous pairs + 2 others, which are the sex chromosome ______ or ______.

A

XX or XY

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28
Q

______ sex cells also have the diploid number (46) of chromosomes.

A

Immature

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29
Q

Gametes

A

-sperm or ovum

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30
Q

______ is the process by which the diploid number of chromosomes in the immature cells is reduced to the ______ number of chromosomes (23) found in mature sex cells which are called ______.

A
  • meiosis
  • haploid
  • gametes
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31
Q

Zygote

A

-a fertilized sperm & ovum that is a diploid cell

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32
Q

A zygote will have ______ chromosomes from each parent.

A

23

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33
Q

Cutaneous

A

skin

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34
Q

Serous

A

facing inside body

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35
Q

Mucous

A

inside body, but connection to the outside (eye, mouth, rectum)

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36
Q

Tissue

A

-a group of cells, held together by an extracellular matrix, which are similar in structure & perform common or related functions

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37
Q

4 Main Types of Tissues

A

1) epithelial
2) connective
3) muscle
4) nervous

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38
Q

Within ______ weeks of conception, there is organization of cells into ______ primary germ layers.

A
  • 2

- 3

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39
Q

3 Primary Germ Layers

A

1) endoderm
2) mesoderm
3) ectoderm

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40
Q

Histogenesis

A

-the cells of each germ layer differentiate to form specific tissues, eventually giving rise to the various organs & tissues

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41
Q

Extra means…

A

outside or beyond

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42
Q

Matrix

A

a surrounding medium or structure

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43
Q

Extracellular Matrix Components

A

1) collagen
2) elastin
3) glycoproteins & proteoglycans

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44
Q

Collagen

A
  • twisted bundles of fibres
  • very strong/can be stretched
  • most abundant
  • weakens with age
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45
Q

Elastin

A

-rubbery & stretchy

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46
Q

Glycoproteins & Proteoglycans

A

-combo of proteins & carbohydrates

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47
Q

What removes damaged tissues?

A

phagocytosis

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48
Q

Epithelial & connective tissues have the ______ capacity to repair.

A

-greatest

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49
Q

Muscle & nerve tissues have ______ ______ to repair.

A

-limited ability

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50
Q

Cartilage is ______ to repair.

A

-slow

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51
Q

Keloid Scars

A

-unusually thick scars that develop in lower layers of the skin

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52
Q

Membrane

A
  • thin, sheet like structure
  • found throughout the body
  • cover & protect internal & external surfaces & organs
  • anchors organs & bones
  • secrete lubricating fluids to reduce friction
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53
Q

2 Major Types of Membranes

A

1) Epithelial

2) Connective Tissue

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54
Q

3 Types of Epithelial Membranes

A

1) cutaneous
2) serous
3) mucous

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55
Q

Epithelial Membranes

A

-most diverse & widespread tissue in the body

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56
Q

2 Layers of Serous Membrane

A
  • visceral (covers organs)

- parietal (lines cavity wall)

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57
Q

Cutaneous Membrane

A
  • the skin
  • primary organ of the integumentary system
  • largest organ (16% of body weight)
  • made up of: superficial layer of epithelial cells & underlying layer of supportive connective tissue
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58
Q

2 Layers of Serous Membranes

A

1) epithelial sheet: thin layer of simple squamous epithelium
2) connective tissue layer: thin, supportive basement membrane

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59
Q

Pleura

A

in lungs

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60
Q

Peritoneum

A

in abdomen

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61
Q

Pleurisy

A

-inflammation of the serous membranes that line the chest cavity & cover the lungs (the pleura)

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62
Q

Peritonitis

A

-inflammation of the serous membranes that line the walls of the abdominal cavity & cover the abdominal organs (the peritoneum)

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63
Q

Mucous Membranes (mucosa)

A

-lines body surfaces that open directly to the exterior of the body (ex. lining of ducts & passages of respiratory, digestive, urinary & reproductive tracts)

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64
Q

Epithelial cells produce ______ to keep the membranes soft & moist to protect underlying cells.

A

-mucous

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65
Q

Connective Tissue Membranes

A
  • do not contain epithelial components

- synovial

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66
Q

2 Types of Epithelial Tissue

A

1) membranous (everywhere else)

2) glandular (glands)

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67
Q

Membranous Epithelium

A

-covers the body & some of it’s parts; lines the serous cavities, blood & lymphatic vessels, respiratory tract, digestive tract, and genitourinary tract

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68
Q

Glandular Epithelium

A

-secretes units of endocrine & exocrine glands

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69
Q

Functions of Epithelial Tissue

A
  • protection
  • sensory functions: special epithelial structures in the skin, nose, eyes & ears
  • secretion: hormones, mucous, digestive juices & sweat
  • absorption: gut & respiratory tract
  • excretion: kidney tubules
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70
Q

Generalizations of Epithelial Tissues

A
  • limited amounts of matrix material
  • tightly packed sheets of cells, with many desmosomes and tight junctions
  • membranous type attached to a basement membrane
  • avascular
  • capable of reproduction
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71
Q

Simple Squamous Epithelium

A
  • single layer of flat & scale shaped cells
  • structure perfect for transport/diffusion (ex. absorption of oxygen into blood)
  • permeable to many substances
  • located in alveoli of lungs, lining of blood & lymphatic vessels
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72
Q

Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

A
  • single layer of cube shaped cells
  • often specialized for secretory activity (saliva, digestive juices, sweat, hormones)
  • usually grouped into tubules or clusters/glands
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73
Q

Simple Columnar Epithelial

A
  • single layer of tall, narrow, column shaped cells
  • composes surface of mucous membranes that line stomach, intestines, part of respiratory system & reproductive system
  • contains mucous producing goblet cells
  • specialized for absorption (ex. microvilli)
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74
Q

Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium

A
  • columnar cells of varying heights
  • single layer of cells that wedge together to appear as if they are 2 or more layers
  • each cell touches basement membrane
  • lining of respiratory tract (ex. trachea) & parts of reproductive system (ex. moves egg in fallopian tube)
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75
Q

Glands

A

-can be endocrine (ductless) or exocrine (duct)

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76
Q

Tubules

A

-urine producing tubules of kidneys

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77
Q

Stratified Squamous Epithelium

A
  • several layers of closely packed cells
  • protection is primary function
  • can be keratinized or non keratinized
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78
Q

Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium

A
  • 2 or more rows of cuboidal cells randomly arranged over a basement membrane
  • protective function
  • located in sweat glands, pharynx, epiglottis
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79
Q

Stratified Columnar Epithelium

A
  • multiple layers of columnar cells
  • only most superficial cells are typical in shape
  • protective
  • rare (ex. located in segments of male urethra & near anus)
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80
Q

Stratified Transitional Epithelium

A
  • up to 10 layers of roughly cuboidal shaped cells that distort to squamous shape when stretched
  • protective function
  • found in body areas subject to stress & that stretch (ex. urinary bladder)
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81
Q

Glandular Epithelium

A
  • specialized for secretory activity & can function on their own (unicellular glands) or in clusters (multicellular glands)
  • exocrine glands: discharge secretion into ducts
  • endocrine glands: “ductless” glands; discharge secretions directly into blood or interstitial fluid
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82
Q

Connective Tissues

A
  • most abundant tissue in body
  • most widely distributed tissue in body
  • multiple types, appearances & functions
  • numerous types (determined by structure of matrix & fibres of tissue)
83
Q

General Structure of Connective Tissue

A
  • extracellular matrix is predominant in most CT’s & determines it’s physical characteristics
  • fluid, gel, solid matrix
  • collagenous (strong & flexible) or elastic (stretchy) fibres
84
Q

Apocrine

A

-head of cell leaves

85
Q

Helocrine

A

-whole cell leaves

86
Q

Merocrine

A

-opens & lets hormones out

87
Q

Functions of Connective Tissues

A
  • connects, binds & supports structures (ex. tendons & ligaments)
  • protects & cushions organs & tissues
  • insulates (fat)
  • transports substances (blood)
88
Q

Classification of Connective Tissue

A

1) fibrous (college or elastic)
2) bone
3) cartilage
4) blood

89
Q

Loose Fibrous (areolar) CT

A
  • most widely distributed

- glue that holds organs together (webs of fibre & a variety of cells in a soft, sticky gel)

90
Q

Adipose (fat & fat cells) CT

A
  • lipid storage is primary function
  • leptin production
  • fat is inside the cell
91
Q

Dense Fibrous CT

A
  • densely packed fibres within the matrix
  • collagenous and/or elastic fibres
  • strong & flexible (ex. tendons & ligaments)
92
Q

Bone CT

A
  • one of the most specialized
  • matrix is hard & calcified
  • forms structural building blocks called osteons (circular structure)
  • function is support, protection, movement, mineral storage, supports hematopoietic tissue
93
Q

Cartilage CT

A
  • cells are called chondrocytes
  • avascular: slow to heal
  • matrix is consistency of a firm plastic/rubber
94
Q

Blood CT

A
  • most unusual type
  • matrix is fluid
  • responsible for oxygenation, body temp, pH, immunity
95
Q

Hematopoietic Tissue (Cancellous Bone) CT

A
  • blood like connective tissue found in red marrow cavities (bones, spleen, tonsils, lymph nodes)
  • formation of blood & lymphatic cells
  • important in immunity
  • called ‘spongy’ bone due to appearance
96
Q

Muscle Tissue Cells

A
  • have the highest degree of contractility (to contact or shorten)
  • slow to heal
97
Q

3 Types of Muscles

A

1) skeletal
2) cardiac
3) smooth

98
Q

Nervous Tissue

A

-provides rapid communication between body structures & control of body functions through transmutation of nerve impulses

99
Q

2 Types of Nervous Tissue Cells

A

1) Neurons (nerve cells)

2) Gilia (neuroglia)

100
Q

Neurons (nerve cell)

A
  • cell body
  • axon: carries nerve impulses away from cell body
  • dendrites: carry nerve impulses toward cell body
101
Q

Gila (neuroglia)

A

-supportive & connecting cells

102
Q

2 layers of skin

A
  • epidermis

- dermis

103
Q

Supporting Layer of Skin

A

-hypodermis

104
Q

“Thin Skin”

A
  • covers most of body
  • 1 to 3 mm thick
  • smooth
  • has hair
105
Q

“Thick Skin”

A
  • soles & palms
  • 4 to 5 mm thick
  • ridged
  • no hair
106
Q

Epidermis

A
  • outermost & thinnest layer of skin
  • composed of keratinocytes, melanocytes, epidermal centric cells (langerhans cells), tactile epithelial cells (merkel cells)
107
Q

Keratinocytes

A
  • 90% of cells
  • ‘water proof’
  • outer skin
108
Q

Malanocytes

A
  • 5% of cells
  • pigment producing
  • filter UV light
109
Q

Epidermal Dentritic Cells (Langerhans Cells)

A

-play a role in immune response

110
Q

tactile Epithelial Cells (Merkel Cells)

A
  • sensory role

- light touch

111
Q

Stratum Corneum (Horny Layer)

A
  • most superficial layer

- dead cells filled with keratin

112
Q

Stratum Lucidum (Clear Layer)

A

-cells filled with keratin precursor

113
Q

Stratum Granulosum (Granular Layer)

A

-cells contain high levels of lysosomal enzymes

114
Q

Stratum Spinosum (Spiny Layer)

A

-cells rich in RNA

115
Q

Stratum Basale (Base Layer)

A
  • innermost layer
  • cells undergoing mitosis; travel to skin’s surface (takes about 35 days)
  • as cells approach the surface they are filled with keratin
116
Q

Dermoepidermal Junction

A
  • specialized area between epidermis & dermis
  • like a layer of ‘glue’ holding the 2 layers together
  • blisters cause by breakdown of this junction
117
Q

Dermis

A
  • deeper & thicker than epidermis
  • composed largely of connective tissue (gives skin its strength)
  • cells are scattered further apart than epidermis & their are many fibres (collagen & elastin) between cells
  • contains nerve endings, muscle fibres, hair follicles, sweat & sebaceous glands, rich vascular supply
118
Q

2 Layers of Dermis

A

1) papillary layer (superficial)

2) reticular layer (deep)

119
Q

Papillary Layer of Dermis

A
  • superficial
  • parallel rows of dermal papillae
  • helps bind epidermis to dermis
  • basis of fingerprinting
  • improves our grip
120
Q

Reticular Layer of Dermis

A
  • deep
  • network of collagenous & stretchable fibres
  • number of elastic fibres
  • decrease with age, which leads to wrinkles
121
Q

Cleavage Lines

A

-patterns formed by the collagenous fibres of the reticular layer of the dermis (plays a role in incision healing & stretch marks)

122
Q

Growth & Repair of Dermis

A
  • does not continually shed & regenerate itself like the epidermis
  • during wound healing, fibroblasts begin forming an unusually dense mass of new connective fibres (if not replaced by normal tissue, this mass becomes a scar)
123
Q

Hypodermis

A
  • aka subcutaneous layer or superficial fascia
  • located under dermis
  • loose connective tissues; forms connection between skin & other structures
  • made primarily of fat (insulation from extreme heat, alternative source of energy, protective cushion)
124
Q

Skin Pigment

A
  • gives skin it’s colour
  • produced in stratum basale/germinativum by cells called melanocytes
  • pigment is called melanin
  • primary function is to absorb harmful UV radiation from sun light to prevent sunburn
  • more melanin=darker skin
125
Q

Functions of the Skin

A

1) protection
2) sensation
3) flexibility
4) excretion
5) hormone production (vitamin D)
6) immunity
7) temperature regulation

126
Q

Protection (skin function)

A
  • physical barrier to micro organisms
  • barrier to chemical hazards
  • prevents dehydration
  • protects against excess UV exposure
127
Q

Melanin (in skin) protects the body from…

A

-UV exposure

128
Q

Keratin (in skin) protects the body from…

A
  • infection by microbes
  • harmful chemicals
  • excessive fluid loss
  • cuts & tears
129
Q

Sensation (skin functions)

A
  • skin acts as a sophisticated sense organ

- somatic sensory receptors detect stimuli that permit us to detect pressure, touch, temperature, pain, etc.

130
Q

Sensory Role of Skin

A
  • receptors serve as receivers for the body, keeping it informed of changes in its environment
  • meissner’s corpuscles detect lighter touch
  • pacinian corpuscles detect pressure
  • other receptors detect pain, heat & cold
131
Q

What are the accessory organs/structures of the skin?

A
  • hair
  • nails
  • skin glands
  • receptors
132
Q

How does the skin regulate body temperature?

A

Heat Loss Through Evaporation: regulation of sweat secretion

Heat Loss Through Radiation: regulating the flow of blood close to the body surface

133
Q

Growth requires an epidermal tube like structure called a ______ ______.

A

-hair follicle

134
Q

Growth begins from small cap shaped clusters of cells at the base of the follicle called ______ ______.

A

-hair papilla

135
Q

______ ______ lies hidden in the follicle.

A

-hair root

136
Q

The visible part of the hair is called the ______.

137
Q

Arrector Pilli

A
  • smooth muscle
  • contractions cause goosebumps or hair to stand straight up
  • attached to base of hair follicle
138
Q

Nails

A
  • produced by epidermal cells over ends of fingers & toes (cells filled with keratin)
  • visible part is called nail body
  • root lies in a groove & is hidden by cuticle
  • crescent shaped area nearest root is called lunula
  • nail bed may change colour with change in blood flow
139
Q

Accessory Organs-Receptors

A
  • specialized nerve endings that make it possible for skin to act as a sense organ (covered in ‘dermis’ section)
  • Krause end bulbs (bulboid corpuscles): frequency vibration, fine touch
140
Q

2 Types of Sudoriferous Glands

A
  • eccrine

- apocrine

141
Q

Eppocrine Glands

A
  • function throughout life
  • most numerous, important & widespread sweat glands
  • produce sweat, which is eliminated through pores
  • assist in body heat regulation
142
Q

Apocrine Glands

A
  • enlarge/onset at puberty
  • mostly in armpit & around genitalia
  • secretion is thicker/milky (odor cause by bacterial breakdown)
  • includes ceruminous glands (make ear wax)
143
Q

Sebaceous Glands

A
  • grow where hair grows
  • secrete oil (more during adolescence)
  • amount of secretion is regulated by sex hormones
  • sebum in sebaceous gland ducts may darken to form a blackhead
144
Q

Ceruminous Glands

A
  • specialized sweat gland
  • located in ear
  • makes ear wax by mixing secretions with sebum to protect the ear from dehydration
145
Q

Skin Cancer

A
  • causes can be environmental or genetic

- most common form of cancer

146
Q

3 Common Types of Skin Cancer

A
  • squamous cell carcinoma (SCC)
  • basal cell carcinoma (BCC)
  • malignant melanoma
  • SCC & BCC amount for 95%
147
Q

Squamous Cell Carcinoma

A
  • slow growing
  • malignant tutor of epidermis
  • first appear as hard, raised nodules
  • if left untreated will grow & metastasize
148
Q

Basal Cell Carcinoma

A
  • most common type of skin cancer
  • usually on upper face
  • least likely to metastasize
  • small, raised lesion that erodes in centre causing bleeding
  • common on face due to lots of exposure to sun
149
Q

Malignant Melanoma

A
  • most serious form of skin cancer
  • can develop from a benign pigmented mole
  • develops into dark, spreading, cancerous lesion
  • risk in higher is you have a blistering sunburn before age 20
150
Q

Warning Signs of Malignant Melanoma

A 
ABCDE:
A- asymmetry
B- border (irregular)
C- colour (uneven)
D- diameter (>6mm)
E- evolving (any changes)
151
Q

Types of Burns

A
  • sun
  • electrical
  • chemical/acid
  • friction
152
Q

What does treatment/recovery of burns depend on?

A
  • size of area affected

- severity/depth of burn

153
Q

Rule of Nines

A
  • body surface area (adult) is divides into 11 areas that are 9% each
  • additional 1% around genitals
  • used to quickly determine the extent of burn
  • must also consider depth
154
Q

First Degree Burns

A
  • superficial partial thickness burns
  • involve only surface layers of epidermis
  • minimal damage
155
Q

Second Degree Burns

A
  • partial thickness burns
  • involve the deep epidermis layers
  • damage to upper layers of dermis
  • severe pain, swelling, blisters, scarring
156
Q

Third Degree Burns

A
  • full thickness burns
  • complete destruction of epidermis & dermis
  • may involve muscle & bone
  • no pain initially, followed by lots of pain
  • fluid loss
  • increased risk of infection
157
Q

Functions of Bone

A

1) support
2) protection
3) movement
4) mineral storage
5) hematopoiesis (formation of blood cells takes place in red bone marrow)

158
Q

What are the 5 types of bones?

A

1) long
2) short
3) flat
4) irregular
5) sesamoid

159
Q

Long Bone

A
  • cylindrical, longer than they are wide, enlarged ends that articulate with other bones
  • all bones except knee cap, wrist & ankle bones
160
Q

Short Bone

A

-cube or box shaped (ex. wrists, ankles)

161
Q

Flat Bone

A

-broad & thin with a flattened & often curved surface (skull, scapula, ribs, sternum)

162
Q

Irregular Bones

A

-often clustered in groups, various shaped & sizes (vertebrae, hip bones, facial bones)

163
Q

Sesamoid Bones

A
  • aka round bones
  • sometimes categorized as irregular bones
  • number & size vary from person to person
  • ex. knee cap
164
Q

What are the 2 major types of connective tissue that make up the skeletal system?

A
  • cartilage
  • bones
  • there is more matrix than cells in both
165
Q

What are the 2 types o bone in the skeletal system?

A
  • compact bone (dense bone)

- spongy bone (cancellous bone)

166
Q

Compact Bone (dense)

A
  • outerlayer (hard & dense)

- 80% of total bone mass

167
Q

Spongy Bone (cancellous or trabecular)

A
  • 20% of total bone mass
  • in ends of long bones
  • porous texture due to thin threads of bone called trabeculae
  • trabeculae are surrounded by open spaces that may contain red bone marrow (in adults mostly in flat bones, femur & humerus)
  • bone cells found within trabeculae
  • nutrients delivered to/waste removed from cells via diffusion through tiny canaliculi
  • arranged along lines of stress to enhance strength
  • blood supply from bone marrow in medullary cavity
168
Q

Osteons or Haversian Systems

A

-cylindrical structural units of compact bone

169
Q

Concentiric Lamella

A

-matrix is calcified & arranged in rings of compact bone

170
Q

What contains blood vessels in compact bones?

A

-central canal

171
Q

Lacunae

A
  • spaces within the hard layers of concentric lamella

- osteocytes are in these spaces

172
Q

Cancaliculi

A

-tiny canals in compact bone that connect with the central canal in each osteon (this is how nutrients get from the blood to the bone)

173
Q

Periosteum

A
  • fibrous sheath that covers compact bones

- blood vessels pass through to get into bone & connect with central canal

174
Q

Types of Bone Cells

A
  • osteoblasts
  • osteoclasts
  • osteocytes
175
Q

Osteoblasts

A
  • bone building cells
  • form bone matrix & secrete collagen fibres
  • initiate the process of calcification
  • develop into osteocytes
  • found in both the periosteum & endosteum
176
Q

Osteoclasts

A
  • huge cells that digest bone matrix (bone resorption)
  • part of normal bone growth, development, maintenance & repair
  • concentrated in the endosteum
  • secrete digestive enzymes to digest the bone matrix
177
Q

Osteocytes

A
  • mature bone cells
  • no longer secrete matrix
  • maintain bone by regulating how much calcium in deposited in matrix
  • located in lacunae
178
Q

The Process of ‘Remodelling’ Bone

A
  • bone is constantly being remodelled

- requires osteoclasts & osteoblasts

179
Q

The Process of ‘Remodelling’ Bone in Newborns

A
  • many bones made up of cartilage (not ossified)

- at approx 8 weeks it gets replaced by calcified bone matrix & mature bone calls (osteocytes)

180
Q

Endochondral Ossification

A

-replacing cartilage with bone tissue

181
Q

In adulthood only ______ ______ make blood.

A

-flat bones

182
Q

In enfants & children ______ ______ bone makes blood.

A

-almost every

183
Q

Bone Marrow

A
  • type of soft connective tissue called myeloid tissue
  • site for the production of blood cells
  • found in the medullary cavities of long bones & in spaces of spongy bone
184
Q

Red Marrow

A
  • found in all bones in infants & children
  • mainly found in ribs, vertebra & ends of long bones
  • functions to produce red blood cells
185
Q

Yellow Marrow

A
  • replaces red marrow as we age
  • marrow become saturated with fat & it no longer active in blood cell production
  • can change to red marrow in times of decreased blood supply
186
Q

Skeletal system is a ______ reservoir.

187
Q

What works similar to calcium?

A

-magnesium

188
Q

Homeostasis of calcium ion concentration is essential for…

A
  • bone formation, remodelling & repair
  • blood clotting
  • nerve impulse transmittion
  • skeletal & cardiac muscle contractions
189
Q

Mechanisms of calcium homeostasis involve…

A
  • calcitonin
  • parathyroid (growth hormone)
  • serotonin
190
Q

How is the length of bone increased?

A
  • epiphyseal cartilage divides to create more cartilage

- the diaphyseal cartilage is transformed to bone

191
Q

How do bones grow?

A
  • as long as the epiphyseal plate remains between the epiphyses & diaphysis, growth continues
  • the epiphyseal line marks where 2 centres of ossification have fused together
192
Q

What can compromise bone repair?

A
  • age
  • diabetes
  • osteoperosis (lack of calcium causes weak bones)
  • infections
  • circulation issues
193
Q

Repair of Fractures

A
  • fractures can cause bleeding
  • blood pools at site of fracture
  • clotting=fracture hematoma which develops granulation tissue that contains all the elements to repair the fracture
194
Q

Chondrocyte

195
Q

Matrix

A
  • gel like

- supported by collagenous fibres

196
Q

Structure of Cartilage

A
  • rubberlike
  • supports, shock absorbant, long bone growth
  • no blood vessels, so nutrients diffuse through matrix to reach cells
197
Q

3 Types of Cartilage

A
  • elastic
  • hyaline
  • fibro
198
Q

Hyaline Cartilage

A
  • most common
  • covers surfaces of articulating bone
  • forms costal cartilage, rings of trachea & bronchi, nose
199
Q

Elastic Cartilage

A
  • external ear

- connects inner ear to nasal cavity

200
Q

Fibrocartilage

A
  • strong & rigid

- pubic symphysis, intervertebral discs, where large tendons join bones

201
Q

Decreased bone density/strength can occur from…

A
  • pregnancy
  • illness
  • nutritional deficiencies
202
Q

As you age, hard bone matrix is replaced with…

A

-softer connective tissue

203
Q

Cartilage is ______ to repair.

204
Q

The type of cartilage depends on…

A
  • amount of matrix

- the elastic & collagen fibres that are present

Term 1 (17 decks)

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