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Term 1 > A & P > Flashcards

A & P Flashcards

1
Q

How much of an adult’s body weight is blood?

A
  • 4 to 6 litres

- 8%

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2
Q

What is blood?

A
  • liquid connective tissue
  • pick up and delivery system
  • heat regulation
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3
Q

2 Basic Components of Blood

A

1) plasma- liquid

2) formed elements (cells)-suspended in plasma

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4
Q

What % of our blood volume is plasma?

A

55%

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5
Q

Blood Plasma

A
  • blood minus it’s formed elements

- non living

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6
Q

Composition of Blood Plasma

A
  • water

- dissolving substances (ex. nutrients, oxygen, salts, hormones, waste)

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7
Q

What are the most abundant solutes?

A

-plasma proteins

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8
Q

4 Plasma Proteins

A

1) albumins
2) globulins
3) fibrinogen
4) prothrombin

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9
Q

Albumins

A

-thicken and maintain blood volume

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10
Q

Globins

A

-antibodies that protect against infections

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11
Q

Fibrinogen

A

-blood clotting

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12
Q

Prothrombin

A

-blood clotting

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13
Q

Blood Serum

A
  • blood plasma
  • minus clotting factors
  • contains antibodies
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14
Q

Does amount of blood vary with gender and size?

A

Yes.

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15
Q

What is normal pH?

A

7.35 to 7.45

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16
Q

3 Main Types of Formed Elements

A

1) RBC’s/Erythrocytes
2) WBC’s/Leukocytes
3) Platelets/Thrombocytes

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17
Q

RBC’s/Erythrocytes

A

-approx. 4.5 to 5.5 million per mm cubed of blood

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18
Q

WBC’s/Leukocytes

A

-5000 to 10000 per mm cubed of blood

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19
Q

Platelets/Thrombocytes

A

300000 per mm cubed of blood

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20
Q

How much is 1 drop of blood?

A

1 mm cubed

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21
Q

RBC Structure

A
  • most numerous of formed elements
  • tiny biconcave disks
  • shape increases surface area to maximize function
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22
Q

What is the primary component of RBC’s?

A

-protein hemoglobin

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23
Q

Do RBC’s have a nucleus or organelles?

A

No.

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24
Q

What is the life span of a RBC?

A

-4 months

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25
Q

What is the exchange or oxygen and carbon dioxide between blood and cells dependant on?

A

-hemaglobin

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26
Q

Hemoglobin

A
  • transports oxygen as oxyhemoglobin

- transports carbon dioxide as carbaminohemoglobin

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27
Q

How many hemoglobin molecules are in each RBC?

A
  • 200 to 300 million

- greater in males

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28
Q

How many globulin chains are in hemoglobin?

A

-4

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29
Q

What are globulin chains attached to?

A

-a heme group

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30
Q

Anemia

A
  • blood disorder

- blood cannot carry adequate oxygen to body cells

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31
Q

When can anemia occur?

A
  • deficiency of RBC

- deficiency of hemoglobin

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32
Q

Types of Anemia

A

Related to # of RBC’s:

  • aplastic
  • pernicious
  • folate deficiency
  • blood loss/hemorrhagic

Related to Hemoglobin:

  • iron deficiency
  • sickle cell
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33
Q

Aplastic Anemia

A
  • decreased # of RBC’s (and WBC and platelets)
  • following destruction of hemopoietic elements in bone marrow (toxins, drugs, chemotherapy, etc.)
  • treat via bone marrow transplant
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34
Q

Pernicious Anemia

A
  • decreased # of RBC’s

- dietary deficiency of B12

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35
Q

Folate Deficiency Anemia

A
  • similar to pernicious anemia (decrease in RBC’s)
  • due to folate (folic acid) deficiency, which is common in alcoholics and malnourished
  • treated with vitamins
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36
Q

Blood Loss/Hemorrhagic Anemia

A
  • decrease RBC’s

- caused by hemorrhage

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37
Q

Iron Deficiency Anemia

A
  • lack of hemoglobin
  • tired
  • treated with supplementation
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38
Q

Sickle Cell Anemia

A
  • severe/fatal
  • genetic
  • caused by abnormal hemoglobin that forms solid crystals when blood oxygen Is low
  • causes RBC shape to become distorted (can’t function properly)
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39
Q

Polycythemia

A
  • bone marrow produces too many RBC’s
  • blood is too thick (cannot flow properly)
  • results in stroke or heart attack
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40
Q

Erythropoeisis (formation of RBC’s)

A
  • begins in red bone marrow
  • hemocytoblast to RBC in 4 days
  • RBC’s are continually destroyed/replaced (200 billion a day)
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41
Q

What is the average life span of a circulating RBC?

A

-105 to 120 days

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42
Q

Destruction of RBC’s

A
  • eaten by macrophages in liver and spleen
  • recycle as much of RBC as they can
  • hemoglobin is broken down
  • amino acids, iron and bulirubin are released
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43
Q

2 Main Systems of Blood Classification

A

1) ABO

2) Rh

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44
Q

ABO

A
  • identified by ‘self antigens’ in plasma membrane of RBC’s

- we are born with the antigens

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45
Q

Antigen

A

-activates responses from immune system (production of antibodies)

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46
Q

Antibody

A
  • substance made by the body in response to stimulation by an antigen
  • destroys or neutralizes the antigen
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47
Q

Non Self Antigen

A

-foreign proteins that stimulate an immune system response

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48
Q

Agglutination

A

-an antibody reacting with an antigen to make them clump/stick together

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49
Q

4 Blood Types

A
  • A
  • B
  • AB
  • O

-the letter stands for the type of ‘self antigen’ in the plasma membrane of the individuals RBC’s

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50
Q

What prevents agglutination?

A
  • there are no antibodies in the blood that are the same as the self antigen on the RBC
  • matching appropriate blood types
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51
Q

Rh Positive

A

-Rh antigen is present in plasma membrane of RBC

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52
Q

RH Negative

A

-Rh antigen is NOT present in plasma membrane of RBC

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53
Q

Rh System

A
  • follows same principle as ABO (avoids antibody/antigen reactions)
  • important to consider in blood transfusions
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54
Q

What % of the US population is Rh+?

A

82%

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55
Q

O-

A

-universal donor

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56
Q

AB+

A

-universal recipient

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57
Q

When does Erythroblastosis Fetalis occur?

A
  • the mother is Rh-
  • the father is Rh+
  • baby inherits father’s Rh=
  • the mother carries a second Rh+ fetus
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58
Q

Does plasma naturally contain anti Rh bodies?

A

No, but if Rh+ is introduced into an Rh- person’s body, then anti Rh antibodies will appear in blood plasma.

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59
Q

WBC’s

A
  • aka leukocytes

- defense/immunity

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60
Q

What are WBC’s categorized as?

A

1) granulocytes

2) agranulocytes

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61
Q

Granular Leukocytes

A

-granules in cytoplasm

  • neutrophils
  • eosinophils
  • basophils
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62
Q

Non Granular/Agranular Leukocytes

A

-NO granules in cytoplasm

  • lymphocytes
  • monocytes
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63
Q

Neutrophils

A

-granulocytes

  • most numerous type of WBC (65%)
  • phagocytes
  • attracted to damaged cells at infection site by chemotaxis
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64
Q

Eosinophils

A

-granulocytes

  • weak phagocytes (abundant in mucous membranes
  • protection against parasites)
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65
Q

Basophils

A

-granulocytes

  • secrete heparin (anticoagulant)
  • secrete histamine (during inflammatory reactions)
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66
Q

Lymphocytes

A

-agranulocytes

  • smallest WBC’s
  • 2nd most numerous (25%)
  • different from phagocytes
  • B lymphocytes produce antibodies
  • T lymphocytes directly attack foreign cells
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67
Q

Differential WBC Count Test

A

-gives proportions of each type of WBC as a % of total WBC count

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68
Q

Do disorders affect all types of WBC the same way?

A

No.

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69
Q

How many leukocytes does 1 drop of blood contain?

A
  • 5000 to 9000

- different % of each type

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70
Q

What are some WBC disorder’s that can be detected?

A
  • leukopenia
  • leukocytosis
  • leukemia
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71
Q

leuko

A

-white

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72
Q

Leukopenia

A

-low WBC count (less than 5000/mm cubed)

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73
Q

Leukocytosis

A
  • high WBC count ( greater than 10000/mm cubed)
  • more common than leukopenia
  • due to bacterial infections
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74
Q

Leukemia

A
  • blood cancers
  • WBC’s don’t function properly
  • WBC count (greater than 100000/mm cubed)
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75
Q

Monocytes

A

-agranulocytes

  • largest WBC
  • mobile
  • highly phagocytic
  • aggressive phagocytes (due to size, can engulf larger pathogens and cancer cells)
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76
Q

Macrophages

A
  • large eaters

- specialized monocytes that grow to several times their original size after they migrate out of the blood

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77
Q

What 2 types of tissue are RBC’s and WBC’s produced in?

A

1) myeloid (red bone marrow)

2) lymphatic

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78
Q

What are the precursors of RBCs, WBCs and platelets?

A

-hematopoietic stem cells

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79
Q

Myeloid (red bone marrow) Tissue

A
  • in adult sternum, ribs and hip bones

- forms al types of blood cells (most lymphocytes and monocytes develop in lymphatic tissue)

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80
Q

Lymphatic Tissue

A
  • in lymph nodes, thymus and spleen

- forms lymphocytes and monocytes

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81
Q

Platelets

A
  • thrombocytes

- small disks

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82
Q

3 Important Properties of Platelets

A

1) agglutination
2) adhesiveness
3) aggregration

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83
Q

How many platelets does the average adult have?

A

250000/mm cubed (no difference in gender)

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84
Q

What is vitamin k?

A

-coagulation (koagulation)

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85
Q

What does vitamin k do?

A
  • stimulates liver cells to increase synthesis of prothrombin
  • faster production of thrombin
  • faster clot
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86
Q

Thrombus

A
  • stationary blood clot

- stays where it formed

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87
Q

Thrombosis

A

-condition of having a thrombus

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88
Q

Embolus

A

-part of the thrombus that dislodges and circulates through the bloodstream (may block a vessel)

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89
Q

Embolism

A

-condition of having an embolus

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90
Q

Hemophilia

A
  • inability to form blood clots
  • x linked inherited disorder (x recessive)
  • cannot produce plasma proteins involved in blood clotting
  • life threatening (must be treated)
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91
Q

Where is the heart located?

A
  • 2/3 Lt of midline
  • 1/3 Rt of midline
  • apex lies on diaphragm
  • base (upper portion) lies below 2nd rib
  • between body of sternum and thoracic vertebrae
  • positioning makes CPR possible
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92
Q

Shape of Heart

A

-triangle

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93
Q

Size of Heart

A

-fist sized

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94
Q

What cover the heart?

A

-pericardium (loose fitting sac)

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95
Q

2 Parts of the Pericardium

A

1) fibrous portion

2) serous portion

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96
Q

Fibrous Portion of the Pericardium

A
  • tough
  • loose fitting
  • inextensible
  • attaches to the lg blood vessels that leave the top of the heart
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97
Q

Serous Portion of the Pericardium

A

Parietal Layer
-lies inside the fibrous pericardium

Visceral Layer

  • aka epicardium
  • outside of the heart
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98
Q

What is between the 2 serous layers of the pericardium?

A
  • pericardial space
  • filled with pericardial fluid
  • lubricates (decreases friction)
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99
Q

Epicardium

A

-visceral layer of the serous portion of the pericardium

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100
Q

Myocardium

A
  • cardiac muscle tissue that makes up the bulk of the heart wall/wall of each heart chamber
  • synctium (joined cells)
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101
Q

Endocardium

A
  • thin layer of smooth tissue (endothelial tissue)

- lines the inside of each heart chamber and blood vessels

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102
Q

What is the interior of the heart divided into?

A
  • 4 chambers
  • 2 atria
  • 2 ventricle
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103
Q

Atrium/Atria

A
  • 2 upper chambers
  • receiving chambers
  • blood from body returns to atrium via veins
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104
Q

What divides the Lt and Rt atrium’s?

A

-interatrial septum

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105
Q

What is different about the walls of atrium’s and ventricle’s?

A

-atrium’s walls are smaller and thinner

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106
Q

Ventricles

A
  • 2 lower chambers
  • discharging/pumping chambers
  • blood leaves ventricles via arteries
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107
Q

What divides the 2 ventricles?

A

-interventricular septum

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108
Q

Which ventricle has a thicker myocardium?

A

-left

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109
Q

The heart is a…

A

-pump

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110
Q

Systole

A

-contraction of the heart

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111
Q

Diastole

A

-relaxation of the heart

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112
Q

What controls the direction of blood flow?

A

-valves

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113
Q

What do valves do?

A

-prevent the back flow of blood

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114
Q

4 Valves of the Heart

A
  • 2 atrioventricular valves (AV valves)

- 2 semilunar valves (SL valves)

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115
Q

Atrioventricular (AV) Valves

A
  • separate atria from ventricles

- prevent blood from sowing back into the atria from ventricles when they contract

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116
Q

Tricuspid Valve

A
  • Rt side

- 3 flaps

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117
Q

Bicuspid/Mitral Valve

A
  • Lt side

- 2 flaps

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118
Q

Chordae Tendinae

A

-attach AV valves to wall of heart

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119
Q

Semiunar (SL) Valves

A

Pulmonary SL Valve

  • at entrance of pulmonary artery
  • between Rt ventricle and pulmonary artery

Aortic SL Valve

  • at entrance of aorta
  • between Lt ventricle and aorta
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120
Q

Atrial Systole

A

-with each heart beat, the LA and RA contract simultaneously to fill the LV and RV with blood

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121
Q

Ventricular Systole

A

-the LV and RV contract simultaneously

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122
Q

2 Pumps of the Heart

A

-RA and RV perform different functions to the LA and LV

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123
Q

Coronary Circulation

A

-blood supply to the heart muscle

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124
Q

Why does the myocardium need a constant blood supply?

A

-it is constantly working

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125
Q

Where does the blood that supplies oxygen and nutrients to the myocardium flow through?

A

-Rt and Lt coronary arteries (1st branches of aorta)

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126
Q

Where does most of the blood supply of the heart go to?

A

-myocardium of the Lt ventricle

127
Q

Where do coronary veins return blood to?

A

-Rt atrium

128
Q

Myocardial Infarct (MI)

A
  • aka heart attack

- blockage of blood flow through the coronary arteries

129
Q

Angia Pectoris

A

-chest pain cause by inadequate oxygen to the heart

130
Q

Coronary Bypass Surgery

A

-veins from other parts of the body are used to bypass blockages in coronary arteries

131
Q

Conduction System of the Heart

A

-coordinated via a specialized network of fibres that can rapidly conduct impulses

132
Q

The myocardium is autorythmic, meaning it can…

A

-produce it’s own action potentials

133
Q

How are changes in rhythm of myocardial contraction controlled?

A

-motor neuron pathways of both efferent divisions of the autonomic NS

134
Q

4 Specialized Structures Embedded in the Heart Wall

A

1) sinoatrial node (SA node)
2) atrioventricular node (AV node)
3) AV bundle (bundle of his)
4) subendocaridal branches (purkinje fibres)

135
Q

Sinoatrial (SA) Node

A
  • pacemaker
  • initiates impulse/heartbeat and sets it’s pace
  • in wall of the RA (near opening to SVC)
136
Q

Atrioventricular (AV) Node

A

-in the RA, along lower part of the intertribal septum

137
Q

AV Bundle (bundle of his)

A

-in the septum of the ventricle

138
Q

Subendocardial Branches (purkinje fibres)

A

-in the walls of ventricles

139
Q

Electrocardiogram (EEG)

A

-recording of the electrical impulses of the heart

140
Q

How many waves/deflections does a normal EEG have?

A

3

141
Q

3 Waves/Deflections of an EEG

A
  • P Wave
  • QRS Complex
  • T Wave
142
Q

P Wave

A

-represents depolarization (triggers contraction) of the atria

143
Q

QRS Complex

A

-represents depolarization of the ventricles

144
Q

T Wave

A

-represents depolarization of the ventricles (just before relaxation phase)

145
Q

Cardiac Cycle

A

-complete heartbeat

146
Q

Heartbeat is _____ and _____.

A
  • regular

- rhythmic

147
Q

How long is each heartbeat/cycle?

A

0.8 sec long

148
Q

What is the average beats/min?

A

72

149
Q

What is each cycle/heartbeat subdivided into?

A
  • systole (contraction phase)

- diastole (relaxation phase)

150
Q

Stroke Volume

A

-amount of blood that one ventricle ejects with each beat

151
Q

Cardiac Output

A

-volume of blood that flows out of a ventricle per unit of time (ex. ml/min)

152
Q

What does blood volume depend on?

A
  • stroke volume

- cardiac output

153
Q

Phases of the Cardiac Cycle

A

1) atrial systole
2) isovolumetric vernacular contraction
3) ejection
4) isovolumetric ventricular relaxation
5) passive ventricular filling

154
Q

Atrial Systole

A

atria contract—pressure gradient—blood flows into relaxed ventricles

155
Q

Isovolumetric Ventricular Contraction

A

intraventricular pressure begins to increase—AV valves close—first heart sound

156
Q

Ejection

A

SL valves open—blood leaves heart

157
Q

Isovolumetric Ventricular Relaxation

A

ventricles relax—SL valves close, AV valves open—second heart sound

158
Q

Passive Ventricular Filling

A

intraventricular pressure drops, intraatrial pressure rises—AV valves open—blood enters ventricles

159
Q

Systolic

A
  • first heart sound
  • ‘lub’
  • longer sound
  • caused by contraction of ventricles and vibrations of closing valves
160
Q

Diastolic

A
  • second heart sound
  • ‘dub’
  • shorter sound
  • caused by vibrations of the closing semilunar valves during relaxation of the ventricles
161
Q

What does injury to a blood vessel cause?

A

-rough lining

162
Q

What do clotting factors at an injury site produce?

A

-prothromblin activator

163
Q

What is a ‘platelet plug’?

A

-platelets temporarily accumulate at injury site

164
Q

What converts prothrombin into thrombin?

A

-prothrombin activator and calcium

165
Q

Prothrombin

A

-blood protein

166
Q

Thrombin

A

-protein for blood clotting

167
Q

What produced fibrin?

A

-thrombin reacts with fibrinogen

168
Q

Fibrin

A
  • traps RBC’s to form clot

- looks like a tangle of threads

169
Q

How many km of blood vessels are in the body?

A

100 000 km

170
Q

Angiogenesis

A

-formation of blood vessels in embryonic development and continuing throughout life

171
Q

Blood Vessels

A
  • arteries
  • veins
  • capillaries
172
Q

Arteries

A
  • carry blood away from heart

- elastic and muscular

173
Q

Where do arteries carry blood from?

A

-away from the heart ventricles

174
Q

What is the only artery that isn’t oxygenated?

A

-the pulmonary artery

175
Q

What is the largest artery?

A

-aorta

176
Q

Where does blood flow through to get from heart to body?

A

aorta—arteries—arterioles—metarterioles

177
Q

Metarterioles

A
  • control blood flow to capillary bed

- end at the precapillary sphincters (wrap around entrance to capillaries)

178
Q

Capillaries

A

-connect arteries and veins via arterioles and venues

179
Q

Microcirculation

A

-microscopic blood vessels

180
Q

Capillary Beds/Networks

A

-site of gas and nutrient exchange between blood and tissue fluid around cells

181
Q

How many capillary beds are there?

Where is the highest concentration?

A
  • over 1 billion

- highest concentration in tissues with high metabolic rate

182
Q

Veins

A

-carry blood to the heart atria

183
Q

Largest Veins

A

-IVC and SVC

184
Q

Where does the blood flow of veins travel?

A

capillary beds/networks—venules—veins—vena cava

185
Q

4 Materials in the Wall of Blood Vessels

A

1) endothelial tissue/endothelium (lining)
2) collagen fibres
3) elastic fibres
4) smooth muscle tissue

186
Q

Endothelial Tissue/Endothelium (vessel wall)

A
  • smooth surface of lumen
  • influences blood flood and clotting
  • simple squamous epithelium
  • allows for exchange of gases, nutrients, etc.
  • intercelluar clefts between the cells and ‘fenestrations’ dictate movement of substances in and out
187
Q

Collagen Fibres (vessel wall)

A
  • strength and flexibility (less than elastic fibres)
  • keeps open
  • strengthens walls
188
Q

Elastic Fibres (vessel wall)

A
  • made of elastin (protein polymer) which can stretch more than 100% when at work in the body
  • arranged concentrically in lg elastic arteries (allowing for distention and recoiling)
  • passive tension for normal BP
189
Q

Smooth Muscle Tissue (vessel wall)

A
  • NOT in capillaries

- highest contraction is in elastic and muscular arteries—contraction—active tension

190
Q

3 Layers of Veins and Arteries

A

1) tunica intima (inner)
2) tunica media (middle)
3) tunica adventitia/externa (outer)

191
Q

Tunica Intima in Arteries

A
  • inner

- single layer of squamous epithelial cells

192
Q

Endothelium

A

-lines entire surface of circulatory system

193
Q

Tunica Media of Arteries

A
  • mid layer
  • smooth muscle with thin layer of elastic tissue
  • important in BP regulation (smooth muscle–ANS)
194
Q

Is the tunica media thicker in veins or arteries, and why?

A
  • thicker in arteries

- to withstand systole

195
Q

Tunica Adventitia/Externa in Arteries

A
  • outer layer/collagen fibres

- reinforces wall to withstand pressure

196
Q

Is the Tunica Adventitia/Externa thicker in arteries or veins?

A

-thicker in arteries

197
Q

Tunica Intima in Veins

A
  • inner layer/endothelium

- one way valves to prevent back flow of blood (not found in arteries)

198
Q

Tunica Media of Veins

A

-middle layer
-smooth muscle with thin layer of elastic tissue
-

199
Q

Why is the tunica media thinner in veins than arteries?

A

-lower BP in veins

200
Q

Tunica Adventitia/Externa in Veins

A
  • outer layer

- thinner than in arteries

201
Q

What is the only layer than capillaries have?

A

Tunica Intima

  • very thin
  • flat epithelial cells
  • allows substances to quickly pass through wall
202
Q

Arteries/Arterioles (function)

A
  • move blood from heart to capillaries
  • distribution of gases, nutrients, etc. with movement of blood under high pressure
  • maintain arterial blood supply by constriction/dilation
203
Q

Veins/Venules (function)

A
  • collect blood from capillaries for return to the heart
  • low pressure vessels (act as reservoirs)
  • can expand to hold more blood
204
Q

Capillaries (function)

A

-exchange vessels for nutrients, wastes and fluids

205
Q

Types of Circulation

A

1) systemic
2) pulmonary
3) hepatic portal
4) fetal

206
Q

Systemic Circulation

A

-carries blood throughout the body

207
Q

Pulmonary Circulation

A
  • carries blood to/from lungs

- arteries deliver deoxygenated blood to lungs for gas exchange

208
Q

Does blood from veins from spleen, stomach, pancreas, GB and intestines go right into the IVC?

A
  • no
  • sent to the liver via hepatic PV
  • blood passes through liver before re entering regular venous return to the heart via HV’s that drain into IVC
209
Q

Where does hepatic circulation run?

A

-sent through second capillary bed in the liver returning to normal pathway pf blood returning to heart

210
Q

Where do hepatic PV’s exist?

A

Between 2 Capillary Beds:

  • 1 in the digestive organ
  • 1 in the liver
211
Q

What does hepatic circulation assist with?

A
  • homeostasis of blood glucose levels (liver cells store excess glucose as glycogen)
  • detoxification
212
Q

Fetal Circulation

A
  • circulation before birth
  • modifications required for fetus to efficiently secure oxygen and nutrients from maternal blood instead of it’s own lungs and organs which aren’t fully developed or functional
213
Q

Unique Structures of Fetal Circulation

A
  • umbilical arteries (umbilical cord)
  • placenta
  • umbilical vein (umbilical cord)
  • ductus venosus
  • forame ovale
  • ductus arteriosus
214
Q

Umbilical Arteries

A

-2 small umbilical arteries that carry oxygen poor blood from the developing fetus to the placenta

215
Q

Placenta

A
  • attached to uterine wall

- site of exchange of oxygen, nutrients, waste, toxins, and waste products between maternal and fetal blood

216
Q

Fetal Circulation

A
  • 1 umbilical vein carries oxygen rich blood from the placenta to the fetus
  • gives 2 or 3 branches at the fetal liver, then continues as the ductus venosus
217
Q

Ductus Venosus

A
  • continuation of the umbilical vein along the undersurface of the fetal liver
  • moves most of the blood returning from the placenta to the fetus past the fetus’ immature liver into the IVC
218
Q

Foramen Ovale

A
  • opening in the intertribal septum
  • moves blood from the RA into the LA
  • allows most of the blood to bypass the fetus’ underdeveloped lungs
219
Q

Ductus Arteriosus

A
  • connects pulmonary artery/trunk with the aortic arch

- allows another portion of the blood to bypass the fetus’ underdeveloped lungs and enter systemic circulation

220
Q

What happens when the umbilical cord is cut?

A
  • vessel in umbilical cord no longer function

- umbilical vein becomes round ligament of liver

221
Q

When is the placenta expelled?

A

-after the baby is born

222
Q

What does the ductus venosus become?

A

-ligamentum venous of liver

223
Q

What does the foramen oval do when the baby breathes?

A
  • closes

- establishes pulmonary circulation

224
Q

How long does structural closure of the foramen ovale take?

A

-up to 9 months

225
Q

Where are fossa ovalis found?

A

-in the wall of the Rt atrial septum

226
Q

What contracts as soon as breathing starts?

A

-ductus arteriosus

227
Q

What does the ductus arteriosus become?

A

-ligamentum arteriosum

228
Q

Hemodynamics

A
  • numerous mechanisms that influence the dynamics of the circulation of blood
  • essentail for health and survival
229
Q

Circulation control mechanisms must…

A
  • maintain circulation

- vary the volume and distribution of blood circulated

230
Q

Primary Principle of Circulation

A

-blood moves due to pressure gradient along it’s pathway according to 2 principles

231
Q

2 Principles of Circulation

A

1) fluid doesn’t flow when the pressure is the same throughout the system
2) fluid flows only when it’s pressure is higher in one area than in another and it flows from it’s higher pressure area to it’s lower pressure area

232
Q

How is blood flow between 2 points predicted?

A

-pressure gradient

233
Q

Arterial BP

A
  • BP is the push/force of blood in blood vessels

- highest in arteries, lowest in vein (allows for proper circulation of blood)

234
Q

What is arterial BP directly proportional to?

A

-arterial blood volume

235
Q

2 main Factors in Determining Arterial BP

A

1) cardiac output
2) peripheral resistance

*both are proportional to blood volume

236
Q

Cardiac Output

A

-amount of blood that flows out of a ventricle of the heart per unit of time

237
Q

What is the resting CO from Lt ventricle?

A

5000ml/min

238
Q

What does CO influence?

A

-flow rate to various organs of the body

239
Q

What is cardiac volume determined by?

A

-volume of blood pumped out of the ventricle by each beat (SV and HR)

240
Q

SV

A

-stroke volume

241
Q

HR

A

-heart rate

242
Q

Factors that Affect SV (stroke volume)

A
  • strength of myocardial contractions
  • length
  • neurotransmitters
  • hormones
243
Q

Starling’s Law of the Heart

A

-the more stretched out heart muscle fibres are, the stronger the contraction will be (as long as it is not hyperextended)

244
Q

Factors that Affect HR (heart rate)

A
  • autonomic NS
  • sympathetic (cardiac/NE)
  • parasympathetic (vagus nerve/Ach)
  • cardiac pressoreflexes
245
Q

Cardiac Pressoreflexes

A
  • control centres that receive info. from stretch receptors in the AO and carotid sinuses
  • if high BP is detected, a motor message will be sent to the SA node to decrease HR
246
Q

Reflexes That Influence HR

A
  • emotions (ex. anxiety, fear, anger, relief, etc.)
  • exercise
  • hormones
  • blood temp. (increased blood temp = increased HR)
  • pain (can result in fainting)
  • stress response (sympathetic NS)
247
Q

Peripheral Resistance

A

-force that acts against the flow of blood

248
Q

Blood Viscosity

A

-comes from proportion of RBC’s and partly from blood protein concentration (ex. polycythemia, anemia, hemmorage)

249
Q

Where is the vasomotor centre located?

A

-in the medulla

250
Q

What does the vasomotor centre stimulate?

A

-constriction of blood vessels

251
Q

Vasomotor Pressorelexes

A
  • stretch receptors in the AO and carotid sinuses response to increased BP
  • messages are sent to inhibit the vasomotor centre
252
Q

Vasomotor Chemoreflexes

A
  • same location as stretch receptors

- sensitive to excess carbon dioxide, low oxygen and decreased arterial pH in the blood (vasoconstriction)

253
Q

Avg. BP

A

120/80

254
Q

What can affect BP?

A
  • exercise/fitness level
  • stress
  • age, gender, race, weight
  • stress, emotions
  • hormones
  • disease
  • tobacco, alcohol, caffeine, and other drugs
255
Q

How is BP brought back to normal?

A

-feedback loops

256
Q

Hypertension

A
  • high BP

- if too high, can rupture blood vessels

257
Q

Hypotension

A
  • low BP

- if too low, blood may stop flowing

258
Q

Why is hypertension a ‘silent killer’?

A

-no symptoms

259
Q

Sphygmomanometer

A

-used to measure BP

260
Q

Central Venous Pressure

A
  • venous blood pressure within the Rt atrium

- close to zero

261
Q

What does central venous pressure influence?

A

-the pressure that exists in the lg peripheral veins

262
Q

Strong Heart Beat

A
  • blood is entering and exiting the heart effectively

- low central venous pressure

263
Q

Weak Heart Beat

A
  • flow of blood into the Rt atrium will be slowed

- high central venous pressure

264
Q

What keeps venous blood moving through the circulatory system to RA?

A
  • continued heart beat
  • adequate BP
  • semilunar valves in veins that ensure blood flow in one direction (towards heart)
  • contraction of skeletal muscles (pumping action which squeezes veins)
  • changing pressures in the chest cavity during breathing (pumping action in the veins in the thorax)
265
Q

Pulse

A

-alternate expansion and recoiling of an arterial vessel wall

266
Q

How is a pulse possible?

A

-pressure changes within arteries and the elasticity of arterial walls

267
Q

What does a pulse provide info. about?

A

-cardiovascular system, blood vessels and circulation (ex. rate, strength, rhythm and heart beat)

268
Q

How many major pulse points are there?

A

9

269
Q

Functions of Lymphatic System

A
  • maintain fluid balance
  • immunity
  • fat absorption and transport
270
Q

Structure of Lymphatic System

A
  • lymph
  • lymphatic vessles
  • lymph nodes
  • thymus
  • tonsils
  • spleen
271
Q

Interstitual Fluid (IF)

A

-blood plasma filters out of capillaries into tiny spaces between cells of tissues

272
Q

Lymph

A

-excess IF that isn’t absorbed by tissue cells or reabsorbed by the blood before it flows out of the tissue and drains into lymphatic capillaries

273
Q

Where is lymph drained to?

A

-venous blood…heart

274
Q

What does lymph include?

A

-proteins, fats, etc.

275
Q

Lymphatic Vessels

A
  • permit one way movement (lymph to heart)

- collects excess IF (as lymph) and returns it to the blood stream via veins

276
Q

2 Types of Lymphatic Vessels

A

1) lymphatic capillaries

2) lymphatic ducts

277
Q

Lymphatic Capillaries

A
  • microscopic

- open at one end (blind ended)

278
Q

Where are lymphatic capillaries found?

A

-tissue spaces wherever blood capillaries are (except bone, teeth, bone marrow and CNS)

279
Q

What are the walls of lymphatic capillaries made of?

A
  • simple squamous epithelium

- very porous due to structure

280
Q

What are lymphatic capillaries in the intestinal wall (digestive system) called?

A

-lacteals

281
Q

What are the differences between lymphatic capillaries and lymphatic veins?

A
  • capillaries have thinner walls
  • capillaries have more valves
  • capillaries contain lymph nodes
282
Q

What determines if fluid will move in or out of lymphatic capillaries?

A

-fluid pressure

283
Q

What happens when fluid pressure is greater in interstitial spaces than in lymphatic capillaries?

A

-‘doors’ are pushed open and fluid moves in

284
Q

What happens when fluid pressure is greater inside lymphatic capillary than in interstitial spaces?

A

-‘doors’ are pushed shut (preventing lymph from leaking backwards)

285
Q

Rt Lympahtic Duct

A
  • drains lymph from Rt upper extremity, Rt side of head, neck and upper torso
  • via the Rt subclavian vein
286
Q

Thoracic Duct

A
  • largest lymphatic vessel

- drains lymph fro the rest of body (via Lt subclavian vein)

287
Q

Cisterna Chyli

A
  • structure found along thoracic duct

- storage for lymph moving towards the venous system

288
Q

Function of Lymphatic Vessels

A
  • remove high molecular weight substances and even particulate matter from interstitial spaces
  • lacteals absorb fats/nutrients from sm intestine
289
Q

Shunts

A

-mixture of blood

290
Q

Circulation of Lymph

A
  • no pump!

- relies on breathing and skeletal muscle contractions

291
Q

What do lymph nodes do?

A
  • filter lymph
  • defense
  • wbc formation
292
Q

Where are lymph nodes located?

A

-in clusters along the pathway of lymphatic vessels where they converge to form larger trunks

293
Q

Structure of Lymph Nodes

A
  • oval shaped
  • fibrous capsule
  • biological filters
294
Q

Flow of Lymph

A
  • in to node via afferent lymph vessels

- drained away from node by efferent lymph vessels

295
Q

2 Functions of Lymph Nodes

A

1) defense functions

2) hematopoiesis

296
Q

Defense Functions of Lymph Nodes

A
  • mechanical filtration (trapping particles)

- biological filtration (cells destroy and remove particles)

297
Q

Hematopoeisis Function of Lymph Nodes

A

-maturation of lymphocytes and monocytes

298
Q

What do wbc’s do?

A
  • eliminate antigens and pathogens

- phagocytosis

299
Q

What causes lymph nodes to swell?

A

-increased numbers of immune system cells fighting infection in the gland

300
Q

Clinical Importance of Lymphatic Drainage of the Breast

A

-cancer cell infections can spread along lymphatic pathways t o lymph nodes and other organs

301
Q

Hemodynamics

A

-movement of blood

302
Q

What 2 sets of vessels is the lymphatic drain the breast?

A
  • drains skin over the breast (minus skin , areola and nipple)
  • drains underlying substances of breast, plus the skin of areola and nipple
303
Q

Where is more than 85% of lymph from breasts, and where is the remainder?

A
  • axillary region

- the rest enters nodes almond lateral edges of sternum

304
Q

What are the 3 masses of lymphoid tissue around the openings of the mouth and throat?

A

1) palatine tonsils (tonsils) are the largest and most often
2) pharyngeal tonsils (adenoids)
3) lingual tonsils

305
Q

What is the primary organ of the lymphatic system?

A

-thymus

306
Q

What is the vital role of the thymus?

A
  • immunity

- thymosin enables lymphocytes to T cells

307
Q

Where is lymphoid tissue located?

A

-in mediastinum

308
Q

Involution

A

-lymphoid tissue is largely replaced by fat and CT

309
Q

When does the thymus do most of it’s work?

A

-in childhood

310
Q

Largest Lymphoid Organ

A

-spleen

311
Q

What shape is the spleen?

A

-ovoid

312
Q

How is the spleen often injured?

A

-trauma to abdomen

313
Q

Splenectomy

A

-surgical removal of spleen

314
Q

Functions of Spleen

A

1) defense- filtration and phagocytosis of bacteria/pathogens
2) tissue repair- reservoir of monocytes that migrate to sites of injury to promote healing and repair
3) hematopoiesis- monocytes and lymphocytes complete their development in the spleen
4) destroys and recycles- destroys old RBC’s and platelets, stores breakdown products of RBC’s (ex. iron and hemoglobin) which can be reused
5) blood reservoir

Term 1 (17 decks)

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