7A: Individual Influences on Behavior Flashcards
What are the two major divisions of the nervous system?
Central and Peripheral
What does the CNS include?
Brain and spinal cord
What does the PNS include?
Cranial and spinal nerves; divided into somatic (voluntary) and autonomic (involuntary) divisions
What are the divisions of the ANS?
Parasympathetic (Rest & Digest)
Sympathetic (Fight or Flight)
What are the types of neurons in the nervous system?
Sensory (Afferent)
Interneurons
Motor (Efferent)
What is the structure of the neuron?
Cell Body (Soma) Dendrites Axon Hillock Axon Myelin Sheath Synaptic Terminal Nodes of Ranvier
What are neurotransmitters?
These are what neurons use to communicate with each other
What is the function of Acetylcholine?
Associated with voluntary movement (muscle contraction) and development of memory in the hippocampus; also used for alertness
Excess: depression
Shortage: dementia
What is the function of Serotonin?
Regulates appetite, sex drive, moods and ability to sleep
Shortage: depression/anxiety disorders
What is the function of Dopamine?
Affects our ability to concentrate, pay attention, learn and move
Excess: Schizophrenia
Shortage: Parkinsons Disease
What is the function of Norepinephrine?
Involved with glucose metabolism and energy
Shortage: Depression
What is the function of γ-Aminobutyric acid (GABA)?
It is an inhibitory neurotransmitter; reduces neuronal excitability
Shortage: Anxiety Disorders
What is the function of Endorphins?
It is an inhibitory neuropeptide that is involved with pain reduction; Enkephalins also do the same
What are reflex arcs?
These utilize the ability of interneurons in the spinal cord to relay information to the source of stimuli while simultaneously routing it to the brain
Receptor -> Sensory -> Integration center -> Motor -> Effector
What structures are in the forebrain?
Thalamus Hypothalamus Basal Ganglia Limbic System Cerebral Cortex
What structures are in the midbrain?
Inferior and Superior Colliculi
What structures are in the hindbrain?
Cerebellum
Medulla Oblongata
Reticular Formation
What structures are in the brainstem?
Medulla
Pons
Midbrain
Function of Thalamus
Relay station for sensory infromation
Function of Hypothalamus
Maintain homeostasis & integrates with the endocrine system through the hypophyseal portal system that connects to the anterior pituitary
Function of Basal Ganglia
Smoothen movements and help maintain postural stability
Function of Limbic System
Controls Emotion and Memory
Function of Septal Nuclei
Involved with feelings of pleasure, pleasure-seeking behavior and addiction
Function of Amygdala
Controls fear and aggression
Function of Hippocampus
Consolidates memories and communicates with other parts of the limbic system through the fornix
Parts of the Cerebral Cortex
Frontal Lobe
Parietal Lobe
Occipital Lobe
Temporal Lobe
Function of Frontal Lobe
Controls executive function, impulse control, long-term planning, motor function and speech production
Function of Parietal Lobe
Controls sensation of touch, pressure, temperature and pain; spatial processing, spatial orientation and spatial manipulation
Function of Occipital Lobe
Controls visual processing
Function of Temporal Lobe
Controls sound processing, speech perception, memory and emotion
Which hemisphere of the brain is usually dominant for language?
The Left Hemisphere
What are some cortical functions that are lateralized?
Language, handedness
What are some methods used to study the brain?
Creating lesions, using electroencephalograms (brain waves), computerized axial tomography (3D picture), magnetic resonance imaging (detailed picture), positron emission tomography (brain activity)
What are the functions of the endocrine system?
It is utilized as a way for cells to communicate with one of another over long distances
What coordinates the endocrine system?
Hypothalamus
What is the function of the pituitary gland?
Secretes hormones and neurotransmitters for growth, reproduction and mental development
What is the function of the thyroid gland?
Regulate metabolism, energy usage and it has immune functions
What is the function of the parathyroid gland?
It is used to manage proper bone development; regulate calcium levels in blood
What is the function of the adrenal gland?
Releases adrenaline and manages energy usage
What is the function of the pineal gland?
It connects the endocrine and nervous system; it releases melatonin
What is the function of the reproductive gland (ovaries & testes)?
Produces estrogen, testosterone and progesterone
What is the function of cortisol?
Released by the adrenal cortex during stress to mediate blood glucose levels
What is the function of testosterone & estrogen?
They mediate libido and produce secondary sexual characteristics
What is the function of epinephrine & norepinephrine?
They are released by adrenal medulla and cause physiological changes associated with the sympathetic nervous system involved in HR, BP, Metabolism etc.
How does the endocrine system affect behavior?
It is involved in reproductive behaviors, sleeping patterns (wakefulness) and emotions
How do genes affect behavior?
Certain behaviors are predetermined by genetics and some personality traits are influenced by genes; manipulating genes in a species can affect their behavior characteristics
What are temperaments?
A person’s or animal’s nature, especially as it permanently affects their behaviour.
What are the three types of temperaments?
Difficult, Easy, Cautious
How does heredity influence behavior?
Parents pass their traits to their children; personality and behavior characteristics overlap
Nature vs. Nurture
It describes the contributions of genetics and environment on an individual’s trait
Family Studies (Nature vs. Nurture)
Looks at the relative frequency of a trait within a family compared to the general population
Twin Studies (Nature vs. Nurture)
Compares concordance rates between monozygotic and dizygotic twins
Adoption Studies
Compare similarities between adopted children and their adoptive parents, relative to similarities with their biological parents
Describe the value of traits/behaviors
They are adaptive and adjustable, change throughout development, culture and environment
How does the nervous system develop?
Through neurulation, which is when the notochord stimulates ectoderm to fold over creating neural tube, covered by the neural crest
What does the neural tube become?
The central nervous system
What do the neural crest cells become?
They spread out throughout the body, differentiating into many different tissues
What are the stages of embryonic development?
Fertilization -> Cleavage -> Gastrulation -> Neurulation -> Neural Crest Formation -> Organogenesis
Fertilization
The union of male and female gametes
Cleavage
Embryo called: blastula
The zygote rapidly divides into many smaller cells without an overall increase in size; it increases in mass
Blastomeres are formed, which eventually form a morula followed by a blastula which is filled with blastocoel
Gastrulation
Embryo called: gastrula
Cells of the zygote form the primary germ layers (ecto, meso and endoderm); the blastocoel is eliminated and the archenteron is formed;
Neurulation
Embryo called: Neurula
The nervous system begins to form through the creation of the neural tube
Neural Crest Formation
Form sensory cells, adrenal medulla
Organogenesis
Different body organs begin to form
What does the ectoderm differentiate into?
Skin, lens of the eye, brain and nervous system
What does the mesoderm differentiate into?
Notochord, Heart, Skeleton, Muscle, Epithelia of Organs, Reproductive Organs
What does the endoderm differentiate into?
Inner lining of digestive tract, respiratory tract, major glands such as liver, pancreas
What are primitive reflexes?
These exist in infants and should disappear with age, most served in a protective role
Rooting Reflex
Infants turn his or her head toward anything that brushes the cheek
Moro Reflex
Infant extends the arms and slowly retracts them and cries in response to a falling sensation
Babinski Reflex
The big toe is extended and the other toes fan in response to the brushing of the sole of the foot
Grasping Reflex
The infant grabs anything put into his or her hand
How do gross and fine motor abilities progress?
Head to Toe
Core to Periphery
How do social skills progress?
They shift from parent-oriented to self-oriented to other-oriented
How do language skills progress?
They becoming increasingly complex with age
What developmental changes occur in adolescence?
People develop abilities to comprehend abstract ideas, mature senses, grow independence
What physical developmental changes occur in adolescence?
In girls, breasts are developed, menstruation begins, pubic hair develops
In boys, testes and scrotum grows, pubic hair, armpit, leg, chest and facial hair grow, voice becomes deeper
Define Personality
Describes the set of thoughts, feelings, traits and behaviors which are characteristic of an individual across time and different locations
What are the theories of personality?
- Psychoanalytic
- Humanistic
- Trait
- Social Cognitive
- Biological
- Behaviorist
Describe the Psychoanalytic Perspective
They assume that unconscious internal states that motivate the overt actions of individuals and determine personality
What are Sigmund Freud’s contributions to the psychoanalytic perspective
Freud studied the ID, Ego and Superego
Define the ID
It consists of the basic, primal, inborn urges to survive and reproduce
Describe the ID
The ID seeks pleasure (pleasure principle) and it has a primary process (response to frustration) in which it seeks immediate gratification
Define the Ego
It is the reality principle, it balances between pleasure and pain; it acts as the organizer of the mind
Describe the Ego
It takes into account objective reality and inhibits the pleasure principle, seeks delayed gratification and it moderates desires of the superego
Define the Superego
It is the perfectionist, judges our actions and responds with pride at our accomplishments and guilt at our failures
Describe the Superego
It is the morality principle, considered to be conscious drive and social morality
What is the preconscious?
Thoughts we are not aware of
What is the unconscious?
Thoughts that have been repressed
What is Eros?
Life instincts that promote an individuals quest for survival through thirst, hunger and sexual needs
What is Thanatos?
Death instincts that represent an unconscious wish for death and destruction
What are defense mechanisms?
The ego’s recourse for relieving anxiety caused by the clash of the id and superego; it begins with denying, falsifying or distorting reality and then operating unconsciously
What is repression?
The ego’s way of forcing undesired thoughts and urges to the unconscious; it is considered unconscious forgetting
What is suppression?
It is a conscious form of forgetting
What is regression?
It is reversion to an earlier developmental state; older children reverting to thumb-sucking, throwing temper tantrums or clinging to their mothers
What is reaction formation?
When individuals suppress urges by unconsciously converting them into their exact opposites
What is projection?
Individuals attributing their undesired feelings to tohers
What is rationalization?
Justification of behaviors in a manner that is acceptable to the self and society
What is displacement?
The transference of an undesired urge from one person or object to another
What is sublimation?
The transformation of unacceptable urges into socially acceptable behaviors
What are Carl Jung’s contributions to the psychoanalytic perspective?
He thought of libido as psychic energy and described a personal unconscious and collective unconscious
What are Carl Jung’s archetypes?
Persona, Anima, Animus, Shadow
What is self as described by Carl Jung?
Self was the point of intersection between the collective unconscious, the personal unconscious and the conscious mind
What are Jung’s dichotomies?
E vs. I
S vs. N
T vs. F
What is extraversion?
Orientation toward the external world
What is introversion?
Orientation toward the inner, personal world
What is sensing?
Obtaining objective information about the world
What is intuition?
Working with information abstractly
What is thinking?
Using logic and reason
What is feeling?
Using a value system or personal beliefs
What is the Humanistic Perspective?
These theories focus on the value of individuals and appreciate a person-centered approach; it suggests that humans think rationally and have the ability to control biological urges
Define Maslow’s view on personality
He argued that humans need self actualization to recognize one’s own potential
How did Maslow describe people of the humanistic perspective?
They displayed self-acceptance, awareness, openness, sense of humor, close relationships with others and emotional satisfaction
Define Carl Rogers view on personality
He argued that people have the freedom to control their own behavior and are neither slaves to the unconscious nor subjects of faulty learning
What is incongruence?
The idea that there is a difference between the self-concept and reality
What is congruence?
The idea that self-concept is pretty similar to reality
What is the trait perspective?
It describes a stable pattern of behavior, thought and emotion; they describe individual personality as the sum of persons characteristic behaviors
What is Gordon Allport’s’ view?
He argued that conscious traits better represent personality than unconscious drives
What are Allport’s 3 traits?
Cardinal
Central
Secondary
What are cardinal traits?
Dominates and shapes one’s characteristics which provide direction to life
What are central traits?
General traits found in everyone, drive daily interactions, always want control a situation
What are secondary traits?
These are specific responses to specific situations
What are William Sheldon’s somatotypes?
Short & Stocky = Jolly
Tall = High-strung and Aloof
In Between = Strong and Well-Adjusted
Type A Personality
Competitive and compulsive
Type B Personality
Laid-back and relax
PEN Model of Traits
Psychoticism Extraversion Neuroticism Openness Conscientiousness
Psychoticism
A measure of nonconformity or social deviance
Extraversion
a measure of tolerance for social interaction and stimulation
Neuroticism
A measure of emotional arousal in stressful situations
What is Functional Autonomy?
Behavior continues despite satisfaction of the drive that originally created behavior
What is the Social Cognitive Perspective?
Focuses on how our environment influences our behavior but also how we interact with the enviroment
Reciprocal Determinism
The idea that our thoughts, feelings, behaviors and environment all interact with each other to determine our actions in a given situation; people choose environments that suit their personalities
What is Biological Perspective?
It suggests that personality can be explained as a result of genetic expression in the brain; involves motivation, reward and punishment as well as levels of neurotransmitters
What is the Behaviorist Perspective?
This perspective is based on operant condition; it suggests that personality is a reflection of behaviors that have been reinforced over time
What is Attribution Theory?
A theory which attempts to explain how individuals view behavior; they attribute behavior to internal causes (dispositional attribution) or external causes (situational attribution
Which factors influence motivation?
Instinct, Arousal, Drives and Needs
What is instinct?
Innate behavior from biological influences, occurs in absence of learning
What is arousal?
Awake state, stimulated by reticular formation
What are drives?
Internal states that activates behavior; when need is satisfied, drive is reduced
What are needs?
Needs give purpose and direction to behavior, toward a certain goal; society and culture influence the needs
What are innate needs?
Food, Water etc.
What are learned needs?
Achievements, Power etc.
What is motivation?
It is the purpose behind our actions
What is extrinsic motivation?
This comes from outside oneself; it includes rewards for showing a desired behavior or avoiding punishment if desired behavior is not achieved
What is intrinsic motivation?
This comes from within oneself; it can driven by interest in a task or pure enjoyment
Which theories explain how motivation affects human behavior?
Instinct Theory, Drive Reduction Theory, Arousal Theory, Need-Based Theory, Incentive Theory, Expectancy-Value Theory Sexual Motivation Theory
Instinct Theory
Motivation is based on instincts where are innate, fixed patterns of behavior in response to stimuli; behavioral drives are based on evolutionarily instincts
Arousal Theory
The psychological and physiological state of being awake and reactive to stimuli and influences motivation; people perform actions in order to maintain an optimal level of arousal
Involves the brainstem, ANS, endocrine system and it plays a vital role in behavior and cognition
Drive Reduction Theory
This theory states that people behave certain ways to decrease their needs and maintain physiological equilibrium;
Primary drive are the need for food, water and warmth which motivate us to sustain bodily processes in homeostasis
Ghrelin
Creates a hunger drive and motivate eating
Leptin
This curves hunger
What are secondary drives?
Those that are not directly related to biological processes that stem from learning
Incentive Theory
People behave a certain way due to environmental stimulus; tangible or intangible reward is the most common incentive
What are Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs?
This postulates that certain needs will yield greater influence on our motivation; he classified needs into five groups and assigned different levels of priority to each group
What is the most basic level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?
Physiological Needs: breathing, food, water, sex, sleep, homeostasis, excretion
What is the second level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?
Safety: security of body, employment, resources, morality, family, health and property
What is the third level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?
Love/Belonging: friendship, family and sexual intimacy
What is the fourth level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?
Esteem: self-esteem, confidence, achievement, respect of others, respect by others
What is the fifth level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?
Self-Actualization: Morality, Creativity, Spontaneity, Problem-Solving, Lack of prejudice, Acceptance of facts
What happens if one of the lower needs are not met?
That need will be considered the highest priority
Self-Determination Theory
Emphasizes the role of three universal needs:
- Autonomy - need to be in control of one’s actions and ideas
- Competence - need to complete and excel at difficult tasks
- Relatedness - need to feel accepted and wanted in relationships
What biological motivators regulate behavior?
Eating/Hunger, Sex Drive, Drug & Alcohol Use
Which sociocultural motivators regulate behavior?
Eating, Sexual, Drug & Alcohol Use
How does eating affect behavior?
The brain, digestive system and hormones are all involved in regulating hunger motivation; it is regulated by time, desire, appeal, occasions and availability
How does sex affect behavior?
Hormonal regulation of sexual motivation includes testosterone, estrogen, progesterone, oxytocin and vasopressin; regulated by time, desire, appeal, occasions and availability
How does drug and alcohol use affect behavior?
Influenced by genetics, withdrawal and biochemical reactions, influenced by curiosity, emotional control, stress and level of self-esteem
What is attitude?
A way of evaluating others, issues, events, objects etc.
What are the components of attitude?
Affective Component
Behavioral Component
Cognitive Component
What is the affective component?
Feelings toward a certain object, issue, person etc.
“Being scared of spiders”
What is the behavioral component?
One’s behavior is influenced by attitude
“Running away from spiders”
What is the cognitive component?
One’s thoughts, theories and beliefs about certain subject
“One believes that spiders are dangerous
What are some links between attitudes and behavior?
Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon
Role-Playing Effects
Foot-in-the-Door Technique
This refers to convincing individuals to make a small commitment towards a cause because the small commitment increases the likelihood of a large commitment toward the same cause; it is a compliance technique
Foot-in-the-Door Effect
Small agreements form a bond between the person that asked for the request and the person that is being asked which means that when the person asks for another request, the person feels obliged to act consistently with their previous decision
Role-Playing Effect
This shows that people internalize roles by altering their attitudes which become suitable roles; a prison study
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
People change their attitudes when there is an inconsistency in their cognition (thoughts and beliefs);
It states that when individuals attitudes are incongruent with their behavior they change that attitude or behavior to eliminate cognitive dissonance
What does dissonance depend on?
The importance of certain beliefs/ideas to us, level of conflict between dissonant thoughts, ability to rationalize
How is cognitive dissonance reduced?
Stabilize the dissonant belief/behavior by focusing on more supportive beliefs
[Change Belief]
Reducing conflicting beliefs level of importance
[Change Action]
Justify one’s behavior or beliefs by adding new cognition
[Change Action Perception]
