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MCAT > 3A: Structure and functions of the nervous and endocrine systems and ways in which these systems coordinate the organ systems > Flashcards

3A: Structure and functions of the nervous and endocrine systems and ways in which these systems coordinate the organ systems Flashcards

1
Q

Neurons

A

Highly specialized cells responsible for the conduction of impulses

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2
Q

How do neurons communicate?

A

Occur through electrical and chemical forms of communication

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3
Q

Electrical Communication

A

Occurs via ion exchange and generation of membrane potentials down the length of the axon

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4
Q

Electrical Communication

A

Occurs via ion exchange and generation of membrane potentials down the length of the axon

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5
Q

Chemical Communication

A

Occurs via neurotransmitter release from the presynaptic cell and the binding of these neurotransmitters to the postsynaptic cell

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6
Q

Chemical Communication

A

Occurs via neurotransmitter release from the presynaptic cell and the binding of these neurotransmitters to the postsynaptic cell

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7
Q

Dendrites

A

Appendages that receive signals from other cells

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8
Q

Dendrites

A

Appendages of the cell body that receive signals from other cells

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9
Q

Cell Body/Soma

A

Location of the nucleus and organelles such as ER and Ribosomes

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10
Q

Axon

A

Long appendage down which an AP travels

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11
Q

Axon Hillock

A

Where the cell body transitions to the axon and where AP are initiated

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12
Q

Axon Hillock

A

Where the cell body transitions to the axon and where AP are initiated

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13
Q

Nerve Terminal/Synaptic Bouton

A

The end of the axon from which neurotransmitters are released

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14
Q

Synapse

A

Consists of nerve terminal of the presynaptic neuron, the membrane of the postsynaptic cell and the space between the two known as the synaptic cleft

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15
Q

Synapse

A

Consists of nerve terminal of the presynaptic neuron, the membrane of the postsynaptic cell and the space between the two known as the synaptic cleft

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16
Q

Myelin

A

An insulating substance that prevents signal loss and dissipation of the impulse and crossing of neural impulses from adjacent neurons

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17
Q

Oligodendrocytes

A

Creates myelin in the CNS

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18
Q

Schwann Cells

A

Creates myelin in the PNS

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19
Q

Schwann Cells

A

Creates myelin in the PNS

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20
Q

Nerves or Tracts

A

Bundles of axons

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21
Q

Tracts

A

Carry only one type of information

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22
Q

Ganglia

A

Cell bodies of neurons of the same type within a nerve cluster in the PNS

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23
Q

Nuclei

A

Cell bodies of individual neurons with a tract cluster in the CNS

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24
Q

Nuclei

A

Cell bodies of individual neurons with a tract cluster in the CNS

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25
Q

Neuroglia/Glial Cells

A

Astrocytes
Ependymal Cells
Microglial Cells

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26
Q

Astrocytes

A

Nourish neurons and form the blood-brain barrier which controls the transmission of solutes from the bloodstream into nervous tissue

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27
Q

Ependymal Cells

A

Line the ventricles of the brain and produce CSF

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28
Q

CSF

A

Physically supports the brain and serves as a shock absorber

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29
Q

CSF

A

Physically supports the brain and serves as a shock absorber

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30
Q

Microglia

A

Phagocytic cells that ingest and break down waste products and pathogens in the CNS

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31
Q

Microglia

A

Phagocytic cells that ingest and break down waste products and pathogens in the CNS

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32
Q

Resting Membrane Potential

A

-70 mV

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33
Q

What maintains the resting membrane potential?

A

Sodium-Potassium ATPase

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34
Q

What maintains the resting membrane potential?

A

Sodium-Potassium ATPase

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35
Q

Excitatory Signals [EPSPs]

A

Cause depolarization; Glu, ACh

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36
Q

Inhibitory Signals [IPSPs]

A

Cause hyperpolarization; GABA

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37
Q

Ionotropic Receptors

A

Ligand gated, allow K and Cl to hyperpolarize the membrane

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38
Q

Metabotropic

A

Block Ca ions

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39
Q

Metabotropic

A

Block Ca ions

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40
Q

Threshold Potential

A

-55 mV

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41
Q

Threshold Potential/Voltage

A

-55 mV

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42
Q

Temporal Summation

A

Addition of multiple signals near each other in time

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43
Q

Spatial Summation

A

Addition of multiple signals near each other in space

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44
Q

What maintains the resting membrane potential?

A

Sodium-Potassium ATPase

K Leak Channels

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45
Q

Spatial Summation

A

Addition of multiple signals near each other in space

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46
Q

Action Potential Outline

A

Resting -> Depolarization -> Repolarization -> Hyperpolarization -> Refractory Period

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47
Q

Resting Stage

A

-70 mV maintained by ATPase and Leak Channels

Lots of sodium outside and lots of potassium inside

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48
Q

Depolarization

A

Voltage gated sodium channels open, sodium rushes in and membrane potential increases to +30 mV

Lots of sodium inside and lots of potassium inside

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49
Q

Depolarization

A

Voltage gated sodium channels open, sodium rushes in and membrane potential increases to +30 mV

Lots of sodium inside and lots of potassium inside

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50
Q

Repolarization

A

Potassium channels open and sodium channels inactivate, potassium rushes outside and membrane potential drops

Lots of sodium inside and lots of potassium outside

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51
Q

Repolarization

A

Potassium channels open and sodium channels inactivate, potassium rushes outside and membrane potential drops

Lots of sodium inside and lots of potassium outside

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52
Q

Hyperpolarization

A

Potassium channels close but due to the timing the membrane potential briefly drops below the resting potential to around -90 mV

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53
Q

Hyperpolarization

A

Potassium channels close but due to the timing the membrane potential briefly drops below the resting potential to around -90 mV

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54
Q

Refractory Period

A

Na/K ATPase works to reestablish the original resting state (more K inside and Na outside); neuron cannot general another action potential during this time

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55
Q

Absolute Refractory Period

A

Depolarization to original resting state

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56
Q

Relative Refractory Peroid

A

After hyperpolarization til the resting state; AP can fire if the stimuli is strong enough

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57
Q

Relative Refractory Peroid

A

After hyperpolarization til the resting state; AP can fire if the stimuli is strong enough

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58
Q

All-or-None Principle

A

The neuron will either respond completely or not at all to the stimuli

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59
Q

All-or-None Principle

A

The neuron will either respond completely or not at all to the stimuli

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60
Q

Neurotransmitter Breakdown

A

Done enzymatically or absorbed via reuptake channel or diffused out of the synaptic cleft

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61
Q

Types of Neurons

A

Motor (Efferent)
Interneurons
Sensory (Afferent)

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62
Q

CNS

A

Brain & Spinal Cord

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63
Q

White Matter

A

Consists of myelinated axons

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64
Q

Grey Matter

A

Consists of unmyelinated cell bodies and dendrites

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65
Q

Location of Matter in the Brain

A

White matter is deeper than grey matter

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66
Q

Location of Matter in the Spinal Cord

A

Grey matter is deeper than white matter

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67
Q

Location of Matter in the Spinal Cord

A

Grey matter is deeper than white matter

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68
Q

PNS Divisions

A

Somatic [Voluntary]

Autonomic [Involuntary]

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69
Q

Autonomic Nervous System

A

Parasympathetic [Rest & Digest]

Sympathetic [Fight-or-Flight]

70
Q

Autonomic Nervous System

A

Parasympathetic [Rest & Digest]

Sympathetic [Fight-or-Flight]

71
Q

Reflex Arcs

A

Use the ability of interneurons in the spinal cord to relay information to the source of stimuli while simultaneously routing it to the brain

72
Q

Reflex Arcs

A

Use the ability of interneurons in the spinal cord to relay information to the source of stimuli while simultaneously routing it to the brain

73
Q

Monosynaptic Reflex Arc

A

Presynaptic Sensory Neuron fires directly onto the Postsynaptic Motor Neuron

74
Q

Polysynaptic Reflex Arc

A

Sensory neuron fires onto a motor neuron as well as interneurons that fire onto other motor neurons

75
Q

Major Functions of Nervous System

A

High level control, integration of body systems, adaptive capability to external influences, integrative and cognitive abilities

76
Q

Major Functions of Nervous System

A

High level control, integration of body systems, adaptive capability to external influences, integrative and cognitive abilities

77
Q

CNS, Forebrain Structures

A

Telencephalon, Diencephalon

78
Q

Telencephalon Structures

A

Cerebral Cortex, Basal Ganglia, Hippocampus, Amygdala

79
Q

Diencephalon Structures

A

Thalamus, Hypothalamus

80
Q

CNS, Midbrain Structures

A

Mesencephalon

81
Q

Mesencephalon Structures

A

Tectum, Cerebellum

82
Q

CNS, Hindbrain Structures

A

Metencephalon, Myelencephalon

83
Q

Metencephalon Structures

A

Pons, Cerebellum

84
Q

Myelencephalon Structures

85
Q

Myelencephalon Structures

86
Q

Sensory Neurons

A

Transmit sensory information, carries sensory input from the outside to the CNS

87
Q

Effector Neurons

A

Cause an effect, transmit motor signals from CNS to an effector organic to respond to physiologically to external stimuli

88
Q

Effector Neurons

A

Cause an effect, transmit motor signals from CNS to an effector organic to respond to physiologically to external stimuli

89
Q

Antagonistic Control of SNS and PSNS

A

They have opposing effects on the internal organs they innervate

90
Q

Sympathetic Function

A 
Increases HR, BP
Increase Blood Flow to Muscle
Pupillary Dilation
Decrease Blood Flow to Digestive System
Increases Glycolysis and Glycogenolysis
91
Q

Parasympathetic Function

A 
Decreases HR, BP
Decreases Blood Flow to Muscle
Pupillary Constriction
Increase Blood Flow to Digestive System
Increases Glycogenesis
92
Q

Supraspinal Circuits

A

Involves input from the brain or brainstem to process a stimuli, unlike most reflex arcs

93
Q

Supraspinal Circuits

A

Involves input from the brain or brainstem to process a stimuli, unlike most reflex arcs

94
Q

Voltage-Gated Channels

A

Group of transmembrane ion channel that open or close based on changes in the cells membrane potential; include sodium, calcium and potassium channels

95
Q

Ligand-Gated Channels

A

Group of transmembrane ion channel proteins that open when a specific ligand molecule binds to the receptor protein; the binding causes a confirmational change

96
Q

Receptor Enzymes

[Enzyme-Linked Receptors/Catalytic Receptors]

A

Extracellular ligand binds and activates intracellular enzymatic activity

97
Q

Types of Receptor Enzymes

A

Receptor Serine-Threonine Kinases
Receptor Tyrosine Kinases
Tyrosine-Kinase Associated Receptors

98
Q

Receptor Tyrosine Kinases

A

Kinase enzymes that specifically phosphorylate tyrosine amino acids; growth factor binds to the extracellular domain which eventually leads to the production of a second messenger cascade

99
Q

G-Protein Coupled Receptors

A

Large integral membrane proteins; its ligand is usually cAMP, peptides or large proteins

100
Q

G-Protein Coupled Receptors

A

Large integral membrane proteins; its ligand is usually cAMP, peptides or large proteins

101
Q

GPCR Outline

A

Ligand binds to an active receptor causing conformational change that activates the protein, transmits the extracellular signal to inside of the cell

102
Q

GPCR Outline

A

Ligand binds to an active receptor causing conformational change that activates the protein, transmits the extracellular signal to inside of the cell

103
Q

G Protein On vs. Off State

A 
GTP = active
GDP = inactive
104
Q

G Protein On vs. Off State

A 
GTP = active
GDP = inactive
105
Q

GPCR Activity

A

GDP binds to the alpha subunit and the GP Complex binds to nearby GPCR,

GTP replaces GDP and activates the receptors and the subunits dissociate causing activity

GTP is hydrolyzed back to GDP when it’s no longer needed

106
Q

GPCR Activity

A

GDP binds to the alpha subunit and the GP Complex binds to nearby GPCR,

GTP replaces GDP and activates the receptors and the subunits dissociate causing activity

GTP is hydrolyzed back to GDP when it’s no longer needed

107
Q

Endocrine Signaling

A

Involves the secretion of hormones directly into the bloodstream; travel to distant target tissues where they bind to receptors and induce a change

108
Q

Peptide Hormones

A

Composed of amino acids and are derived from large precursors that are cleaved during posttranslational modificaiton

109
Q

Peptide Hormones

A

Composed of amino acids and are derived from large precursors that are cleaved during posttranslational modificaiton

110
Q

Peptide Hormone Characteristics

A

Polar and cannot pass through the plasma membrane; bind to extracellular receptors where they trigger the transmission of a second messenger

111
Q

Peptide Hormones

A

Composed of amino acids and are derived from large precursors that are cleaved during posttranslational modification; travel freely through the bloodstream

112
Q

Peptide Hormone Characteristics

A

Polar and cannot pass through the plasma membrane; bind to extracellular receptors where they trigger the transmission of a second messenger; rapid onset but short-lived

113
Q

Steroid Hormones

A

Derived from cholesterol, they are minimally polar and can pass through the plasma membrane; cannot dissolve in the blood stream and must be carried by specific proteins

114
Q

Steroid Hormone Characteristics

A

Bind to intracellular or intranuclear receptors where they promote conformational change and bind to DNA, affecting the transcription of a particular gene; slow onset and are long-lived

115
Q

Steroid Hormone Characteristics

A

Bind to intracellular or intranuclear receptors where they promote conformational change and bind to DNA, affecting the transcription of a particular gene; slow onset and are long-lived

116
Q

Amino Acid-Derivative Hormones

A

Modified Amino Acids; share some features with peptide and steroid hormones; common examples are epinephrine, norepinephrine, T3 and T4

117
Q

Amino Acid-Derivative Hormones

A

Modified Amino Acids; share some features with peptide and steroid hormones; common examples are epinephrine, norepinephrine, T3 and T4

118
Q

Direct Hormones

A

Have effects on non-endocrine tissues

119
Q

Tropic Hormones

A

Have effects on other endocrine tissues

120
Q

Function of the Endocrine System

A

Regulate mood, growth, development, metabolism, sexual function and tissue function

121
Q

Function of the Endocrine System

A

Regulate mood, growth, development, metabolism, sexual function and tissue function

122
Q

Endocrine Glands

A

Hypothalamus, Pituitary Gland, Pineal Gland, Thyroid Gland, Parathyroid Gland, Adrenal Gland, Pancreas, Ovary, Testis

123
Q

Hypothalamus

A

Releases hormones that stimulate the anterior pituitary gland through paracrine release of hormones through the hypophyseal portal system

124
Q

Hypothalamic Hormones

A

GnRH, GHRH, TRH, CRF, PIF/Dopamine

125
Q

GnRH

A

Promotes release of FSH and LH

126
Q

GHRH

A

Promotes release of GH

127
Q

TRH

A

Promotes release of TSH

128
Q

CRF

A

Promotes release of ACTH

129
Q

PIF/Dopamine

A

Inhibits release of Prolactin

130
Q

PIF/Dopamine

A

Inhibits release of Prolactin

131
Q

Anterior Pituitary Hormones

A

FSH, LH, ACTH, TSH [Tropic] & Prolactin, Endorphins and GH [Direct]

132
Q

FSH

A

Promotes development of ovarian follicles in females and spermatogenesis in males

133
Q

LH

A

Promotes ovulation in females and testosterone production in males

134
Q

ACTH

A

Promotes synthesis and release of glucocorticoids (cortisol) from the adrenal cortex

135
Q

TSH

A

Promotes synthesis and release of T3 and T4

136
Q

Prolactin

A

Promotes milk production (letdown)

137
Q

Prolactin

A

Promotes milk production (letdown)

138
Q

Endorphins

A

Decrease perception of pain and cause euphoria

139
Q

Endorphins

A

Decrease perception of pain and cause euphoria

140
Q

GH

A

Promotes growth of bone and muscle and shunts glucose to these tissues; raises blood glucose concentrations

141
Q

GH

A

Promotes growth of bone and muscle and shunts glucose to these tissues; raises blood glucose concentrations

142
Q

Posterior Pituitary Hormones

A

ADH/Vasopressin, Oxytocin

143
Q

ADH/Vasopressin

A

Secreted in response to low blood volume or increased blood osmolarity and increases reabsorption of water in the collecting duct of the nephron, increase blood volume and decreasing blood osmolarity

144
Q

ADH/Vasopressin

A

Secreted in response to low blood volume or increased blood osmolarity and increases reabsorption of water in the collecting duct of the nephron, increase blood volume and decreasing blood osmolarity

145
Q

Oxytocin

A

Secreted during childbirth and promotes uterine contractions as well as milk letdown; regulated through positive feedback loop

146
Q

Thyroid Hormones

A

T3 and T4, Calcitonin

147
Q

T3 & T4

A

Produced by follicular cells and contain iodine; increase basal metabolic rate and alter the utilization of glucose and fatty acids

148
Q

Calcitonin

A

Produced by parafollicular cells, decreases plasma calcium concentration by promoting calcium excretion in the kidneys, decreasing calcium absorption in the gut and promoting calcium storage in bone

149
Q

Calcitonin

A

Produced by parafollicular cells, decreases plasma calcium concentration by promoting calcium excretion in the kidneys, decreasing calcium absorption in the gut and promoting calcium storage in bone

150
Q

Parathyroid Gland Hormones

151
Q

PTH

A

Increases blood calcium concentrations;

Decreases calcium by the kidneys;

Increase bone resorption directly to increase blood calcium concentrations

Activates vitamin D

Promotes resorption of phosphate from bone and reduces reabsorption

152
Q

PTH

A

Increases blood calcium concentrations;

Decreases calcium by the kidneys;

Increase bone resorption directly to increase blood calcium concentrations

Activates vitamin D

Promotes resorption of phosphate from bone and reduces reabsorption

153
Q

Adrenal Cortex Hormones

A

Glucocorticoids [Cortisol, Cortisone]
Mineralocorticoids [Aldosterone]
Cortical Sex Hormones [Androgens, Estrogens]

154
Q

Adrenal Cortex Hormones

A

Glucocorticoids [Cortisol, Cortisone]
Mineralocorticoids [Aldosterone]
Cortical Sex Hormones [Androgens, Estrogens]

155
Q

Cortisol/Cortisone

A

Increase blood glucose concentration, reduce protein synthesis, inhibit immune system, participate in the stress response; stimulated by ACTH

156
Q

Aldosterone

A

Promote sodium reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct thus increasing water reabsorption; increases potassium and hydrogen ion excretion; regulated by RAAS

157
Q

Aldosterone

A

Promote sodium reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct thus increasing water reabsorption; increases potassium and hydrogen ion excretion; regulated by RAAS

158
Q

Adrenal Medulla Hormones

A

Catecholamines [Epinephrine, Norepinephrine]

159
Q

Catecholamines

A

Promote glycogenolysis, increasing basal metabolic rate, heart rate, dilate bronchi and alter blood flow

160
Q

Catecholamines

[Epi, Norepi]

A

Promote glycogenolysis, increasing basal metabolic rate, heart rate, dilate bronchi and alter blood flow

161
Q

Catecholamines

[Epi, Norepi]

A

Promote glycogenolysis, increasing basal metabolic rate, heart rate, dilate bronchi and alter blood flow

162
Q

Pancreatic Hormones

A

Glucagon
Insulin
Somatostatin

163
Q

Pancreatic Hormones

A

Glucagon
Insulin
Somatostatin

164
Q

Glucagon

[Alpha Cells]

A

Raises blood glucose levels by stimulating protein and fat degradation, glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis

165
Q

Insulin

[Beta Cells]

A

Lowers blood glucose levels by stimulating uptake by cells and anabolic processes like glycogenesis, fat and protein synthesis

166
Q

Insulin

[Beta Cells]

A

Lowers blood glucose levels by stimulating uptake by cells and anabolic processes like glycogenesis, fat and protein synthesis

167
Q

Somatostatin

[Delta Cells]

A

Inhibits insulin and glucagon secretion

168
Q

Somatostatin

[Delta Cells]

A

Inhibits insulin and glucagon secretion

169
Q

Pineal Gland Hormones

170
Q

Melatonin

A

Regulates circadian rhythms

MCAT (31 decks)

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