2.4.1 Carbon Chemistry and Isomers Flashcards by Irina Soloshenko | Brainscape

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AP Biology :!: (383 decks)

1.1.1 Properties of Life

1.2.1 An Introduction to Biology

1.2.2 The Nature of Science: The Story of Darwin

1.2.3 Early Scientific Thought

1.2.4 The Emerging Science of Geology

1.3.1 Linnaeus, Buffon, and Lamarck

1.3.2 Darwin: The Voyage Continues

1.3.3 Darwin: More Observations

1.4.1 Darwin: The Theory of Natural Selection

1.4.2 The Theory of Natural Selection

1.4.3 Contrasting Lamarck and Darwin

1.4.4 Contrasting Lamarck and Darwin, Part II

1.5.1 Fossil Formation, Dating, and Indexing

1.5.2 The Fossil Record

1.5.3 Some Fossil Surprises

1.5.4 The Coevolution of Horses and Plants

1.5.5 Mass Extinctions: An Asteroid Can Ruin Your Day

1.6.1 Human Evolution: What Is a Primate?

1.6.2 Human Evolution: The Family Tree

1.6.3 Human Evolution: The Fossil Record

1.7.1 Evidence for Evolution: Biochemical Similarities

1.7.2 Evidence for Evolution: Vestigial Structures

1.7.3 Homologous Structures

1.8.1 Species Concepts

1.8.2 Speciation

1.8.3 Prezygotic Reproductive Isolation

1.8.4 Postzygotic Reproductive Isolation

1.9.1 Artificial Selection in Action

1.9.2 Natural Selection in Action

1.10.1 History of Life: The Heterotroph Hypothesis: An Overview

1.10.2 The Heterotroph Hypothesis: An Introduction

1.10.3 The Origin of Life: Life from Nonlife

1.10.4 The Heterotroph Hypothesis: Protobionts

1.10.5 The Heterotroph Hypothesis: The First Genetic Material

1.10.6 The Origin of Life: The Rest of the Story

1.11.1 The Linnaean System

1.11.2 The Linnaean System: Still Changing

2.1.1 Atomic Structure: SPONCH and the Atom

2.1.2 Electrons, Orbitals, and Electron Shells

2.1.3 Ions, Ionization, and Isotopes

2.1.4 Isotopes: Unraveling Photosynthesis

2.2.1 Bonding and Electronegativity

2.2.2 Ionic and Covalent Bonds

2.2.3 Polar Covalent Bonds, Hydrogen Bonds, and Van der Waals Interactions

2.3.1 Water: Hydrogen Bonding, Solubility, and Specific Heat

2.3.2 Water: Adhesion, Cohesion, and a Solid That Floats

2.3.3 Water: Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic Substance

2.3.4 Dissociation of Water and the pH Scale

2.3.5 Hemoglobin as a Buffer

2.4.1 Carbon Chemistry and Isomers

2.4.2 Functional Side Groups

2.5.1 Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides

2.5.2 Dehydration Synthesis and Hydrolysis: Disaccharides

2.5.3 Polysaccharides: Energy Storage Molecules

2.5.4 Polysaccharides: Structural Molecules

2.6.1 Lipids: An Introduction

2.6.2 Saturated vs. Unsaturated Fats

2.6.3 Phospholipids, Waxes, and Steroids

2.6.4 Nucleic Acids: An Introduction to Genetic Material

2.7.1 Proteins: Amino Acids and the Peptide Bond

2.7.2 Amino Acids: The R Groups

2.7.3 Primary and Secondary Structure

2.7.4 Tertiary Structure

2.7.5 Quaternary Structure

2.7.6 Protein Structure: A Summary

2.8.1 Bioenergetics: The Laws of Thermodynamics

2.8.2 Activation Energy

2.8.3 Enzyme Characteristics

2.9.1 Enzyme Action: The Induced-Fit Model

2.9.2 Enzyme Regulation: Allosteric Regulation

2.9.3 Feedback Inhibition and Cooperativity

3.1.1 The History of Cytology

3.1.2 Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes

3.1.3 Plant and Animal Cell Overview: The Basics

3.1.4 Membranes: Basic Structure

3.1.5 The Nuclear Envelope: The Initial Tour

3.1.6 Nuclear Function: Who's in Charge?

3.2.1 Cellular Function: Endoplasmic Reticulum

3.2.2 Cell Function: Golgi Apparatus

3.2.3 Food Vacuole Formation: The Role of the Lysosome

3.2.4 Still More Vacuoles and Peroxisomes

3.2.5 Mitochondria: Welcome Guests

3.2.6 The Origin of Mitochondria and Chloroplasts

3.3.1 The Cytoskeleton: Basic Components

3.3.2 Centrioles, Flagella, and Cilia

3.3.3 Cell Walls

3.4.1 Plasma Membrane: The Extracellular Matrix

3.4.2 The Plasma Membrane: The Fluid-Mosaic Model

3.4.3 Proteins as the Mosaic of the Cell Membrane

3.4.4 Animal Cell Junctions

3.5.1 Simple and Facilitated Diffusion

3.5.2 Passive Transport: Osmosis

3.5.3 Active Transport: Ion Pumps and Cotransport

3.5.4 Active Transport: The Sodium-Potassium Pump

3.5.5 Energy-Requiring Transport: Endocytosis and Exocytosis

3.6.1 Tools of the Cytologist: Light and Fluorescent Microscopy

3.6.2 Scanning and Transmission Electron Microscopes

3.6.3 Freeze Fracture and Differential Centrifugation

3.7.1 Major Modes of Nutrition Among Organisms

4.1.1 ATP Structure and Function

4.1.2 Phosphorylated Intermediates

4.1.3 Respiration: An Overview

4.1.4 Redox: A Brief Review

4.1.5 Energy Release from Sugar: A Demo

4.1.6 Coenzymes: The Role of NAD+

4.2.1 Glycolysis: The Initial Steps: Energy Input

4.2.2 Glycolysis: The Energy Payoff

4.2.3 Anaerobic Respiration: The Fermentation of Pyruvate

4.3.1 Aerobic Respiration: The Acetyl CoA Step

4.3.2 Aerobic Respiration: The Krebs Cycle

4.3.3 Glycolysis and the Krebs Cycle

4.4.1 The Electron Transport Chain

4.4.2 Oxidative Phosphorylation

4.4.3 ATP Yield from Aerobic Respiration

4.4.4 Other Fuels in Respiration

4.4.5 The Evolution of Glycolysis

5.1.1 The Unraveling of Photosynthesis: A Historical Perspective

5.1.2 Photosynthesis: Twentieth-Century Breakthroughs

5.1.3 Photosynthesis: The Final Picture

5.2.1 The Leaf: Adaptations for Photosynthesis

5.2.2 The Structure of a Chloroplast

5.2.3 Photosynthetic Pigments

5.2.4 The Nature of Light

5.2.5 Photoexcitation and Electron Transfer

5.3.1 The Light Reactions: An Introduction

5.3.2 Photosystem 1

5.3.3 Photosystem 2

5.3.4 The Light Reactions: A Summary

5.4.1 The Calvin Cycle

5.4.2 The Calvin Cycle: RuBP Regeneration

5.4.3 A Review of Photosynthesis

5.5.1 Photorespiration

5.5.2 C4 Plants and CAM Plants

5.5.3 The Evolution of Photosynthesis

6.1.1 Molecular Genetics: The Protein vs. DNA Debate

6.1.2 Continuing to Link Genes to Chemicals: Muller, Beadle, and Tatum

6.1.3 Griffith and Transformation

6.1.4 Avery, MacLeod and McCarty/Hershey and Chase: DNA Wins!

6.1.5 Chargaff and Franklin and Wilkins: The DNA Story Begins

6.2.1 Watson and Crick: The Clues

6.2.2 Watson and Crick: The Double Helix

6.3.1 Replication: Meselson and Stahl

6.3.2 DNA: Polymerization with Triphosphate Nucleotides

6.4.1 Events at the Replication Fork: The Leading Strand

6.4.2 Events at the Leading Strand, Part II

6.4.3 Events at the Replication Fork: The Lagging Strand

6.4.4 Proofreading, End Replication, and Telomeres

6.4.5 DNA Replication: A Summary

6.5.1 Transcription and Translation: An Overview

6.5.2 Transcription: RNA Formation from the DNA Template

6.5.3 Transcription: Termination and RNA Protection

6.5.4 Posttranscriptional Modification/RNA Splicing

6.6.1 Translation: Ribosomal and Transfer RNA

6.6.2 The Role of Transfer RNA: Charging a tRNA Molecule

6.6.3 Translation: Initiation Events

6.6.4 Translation/Elongation: The Initiation of Elongation

6.6.5 Elongation Continued and Termination

6.7.1 Polypeptide Destinations: Signal Peptides and ER Ribosomes

6.7.2 Protein Synthesis: An Overview

6.8.1 Control Mechanisms: Lactose Metabolism in E. coli

6.8.2 Jacob and Monod's Model: The lac Operon

6.8.3 lac Operon: The Summary

6.9.1 The Eukaryotic Genome: DNA Packing

6.9.2 Eukaryotic Genomic Organization: Repetitive DNA

6.9.3 Eukaryotic Genomic Organization: Gene Families

6.9.4 Eukaryotic Genomic Organization: Transposons and Amplified Genes

6.10.1 Eukaryotic Gene Control: Transcriptional Controls

6.10.2 Eukaryotic Control Mechanisms: Posttranscriptional and Posttranslational Controls

6.10.3 Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes: Protein-Making Machinery

7.1.1 Biotechnology: Plasmids in Prokaryotes

7.1.2 Using a Restriction Enzyme to Create a Vector

7.1.3 Biotechnology: Gene Cloning

7.1.4 Biotechnology: Detection of Cell Clones

7.2.1 Biotechnology: Reverse Transcriptase: A Tool Taken from Viruses

7.2.2 Using Reverse Transcriptase to Make cDNA

7.2.3 Electrophoresis: Separating DNA

7.2.4 Sequencing DNA: The Sanger Method

7.3.1 Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms: Genetic Markers

7.3.2 Polymerase Chain Reaction: DNA Amplification

7.3.3 DNA Fingerprinting

7.3.4 Southern Blotting

7.3.5 Detecting DNA Homology: A Biotechnology Summary

7.4.1 The Human Gene Pool

7.4.2 The Human Genome Project: Recent Findings

7.4.3 The Human Genome Project: Applications

8.1.1 The Eukaryotic Cell Cycle

8.1.2 Mitosis: An Overview

8.1.3 Mitosis: The Phases

8.1.4 Cytokinesis

8.2.1 Cell-Cycle Regulation: Protein Kinases

8.2.2 Cell-Cycle Regulation: Other Mechanisms

8.2.3 Cancer: When Mitosis Goes Unchecked

8.2.4 The ras Gene and the p53 Gene

8.3.1 Sexual Reproduction and the Role of Meiosis

8.3.2 Homologous Chromosomes: Thanks, Mom and Dad!

8.3.3 Meiosis: Prophase I

8.3.4 Disjunction and Meiosis II

8.3.5 Mitosis vs. Meiosis

8.4.1 Independent Assortment

8.4.2 Spermatogenesis: Meiosis in Males

8.4.3 Oogenesis: Meiosis in Females

9.1.1 Heredity: The Story of Gregor Mendel

9.1.2 Mendel's Findings: A First Look at Phenotypic Ratios

9.1.3 Mendel's Conclusions: Alternate Alleles and Dominance

9.1.4 Mendel's Conclusions: Segregation and Recombination

9.2.1 Determining Heterozygosity: Test Crosses and Back Crosses

9.2.2 Mendelian Inheritance

9.3.1 Segregation and Independent Assortment

9.3.2 Independent Assortment: An Explanation

9.4.1 Laws of Probability: Rule of Multiplication

9.4.2 The Multiplicative Law: Some Extensions

9.4.3 Laws of Probability: The Additive Rule

9.4.4 Using the Laws of Probability in Dihybrid Crosses

9.5.1 What Is a Dominant Gene? Intermediate Inheritance

9.5.2 Codominance and Multiple Alleles: ABO Blood Genes

9.5.3 ABO Blood Groups: Inheritance Patterns and Pedigree Charts

9.6.1 Epistasis: One Gene Affecting Another

9.6.2 The Bombay Phenotype: Infidelity or Epistasis?

9.7.1 Polygenic Inheritance

9.7.2 Pleiotropy: Multiple Phenotypic Effects

9.7.3 Sickle Cell Anemia: The Case against Dominant and Recessive

9.8.1 Linked Genes

9.8.2 Crossing Over and Recombination: A Tool for Mapping Genes

9.8.3 Gene Mapping Using Recombination Frequencies

9.8.4 Linking Genes to Chromosomes: The Work of Morgan

9.8.5 Morgan's Conclusions

9.9.1 Sex-Linked Traits in Humans

9.9.2 X Inactivation in Humans

9.9.3 The Use of Pedigree Charts to Determine Possible Genotypes

9.9.4 Pedigree Chart: Problem Review

9.10.1 Problems in Heredity

9.10.2 Problems in Heredity: Chromosomal Aberrations

9.10.3 Translocations: 14/21 Downs

9.11.1 Genetic Mutation

9.11.2 Genetic Mutation: Different Forms of Point Mutations

9.11.3 Genetic Mutation: Insertion and Deletion

9.11.4 Genetic Screening

10.1.1 Population Genetics: Darwin Meets Mendel

10.1.2 An Introduction to Hardy-Weinberg Theory

10.1.3 The Hardy-Weinberg Equation

10.1.4 Using the Hardy-Weinberg Theory

10.1.5 Using the Hardy-Weinberg Theory II

10.1.6 Hardy-Weinberg: What Does This Have to Do with Evolution?

10.2.1 Microevolution by Genetic Drift

10.2.2 Microevolution: Continued

10.3.1 Variations Within and Between Populations

10.3.2 Modes of Selection

10.3.3 The Perfect Organism

10.4.1 Speciation: What Is a Species?

10.4.2 Allopatric Speciation

10.4.3 Sympatric Speciation

10.5.1 Time Frame for Evolution: Gradualism vs. Punctuated Equilibrium

11.1.1 Classifying the Products of Evolution: Taxonomy

11.1.2 Building a Cladogram

11.1.3 Molecular Methods for Classifying Organisms

11.1.4 A Phylogenetic Tree of Organisms: A Three-Domain System

11.2.1 The Archaea

11.3.1 The Bacteria

11.4.1 Protists: Archaezoa and Euglenozoa

11.4.2 Protists: Alveolata and Stramenopila

11.5.1 Plant Phylogeny: The Colonization of Land

11.5.2 Plant Phylogeny and Alternation of Generations

11.6.1 Alternation of Generations: Mosses

11.6.2 Alternation of Generations: Ferns

11.6.3 Alternation of Generations: Gymnosperms

11.7.1 Alternation of Generations: The Structure of a Flower

11.7.2 Alternation of Generations: Angiosperms

11.7.3 Embryogenesis in Angiosperms: Dicots and Monocots

11.8.1 Introduction to the Fungi

11.8.2 Diversity of Fungi

11.9.1 Constructing a Phylogenetic Tree of Animals: Animal Development

11.9.2 Developmental Data for the Phylogenetic Tree of Animals

11.9.3 The Formation of Body Cavities

11.9.4 Protostomes and Deuterostomes

11.9.5 Animal Diversity: The Cambrian Explosion and the Move to Land

11.10.1 Introduction to Animals: Parazoa and Radiata

11.10.2 Animals: Acoelomates, Pseudocoelomates, and Coelomates

11.10.3 Diversity of Protostome Species

11.11.1 Diversity of Deuterostome Species

11.11.2 Diversity of Vertebrate Species

11.12.1 Animal Development: A Close-up Look at Fertilization Events

11.12.2 Cleavage, Gastrulation, and Organogenesis: A Closer Look

11.12.3 Events of Gastrulation and Organogenesis

11.13.1 Pattern Formation in Drosophila

11.13.2 Pattern Formation in Drosophila, continued

11.14.1 Viruses and Prions: Living or Nonliving?

12.1.1 Animal Homeostasis

12.1.2 Mechanisms of Homeostasis

12.1.3 Animal Tissues: Epithelial Tissue

12.1.4 Animal Tissues: Loose Connective Tissue

12.1.5 Animal Tissues: Dense, Fluid, and Supportive Connective Tissue

12.1.6 Animal Tissue: Muscle and Nerve Tissue

12.2.1 The Structure of Bone

12.3.1 Introduction to the Digestive System

12.3.2 The Beginning of Chemical Digestion

12.3.3 Chemical Digestion in the Small Intestine

12.3.4 Human Nutrition: Absorption

12.3.5 The Fate of Absorbed Nutrients

12.3.6 Egestion

12.4.1 Introduction to the Gas Exchange of Animals

12.4.2 Human Gas Exchange System

12.4.3 Human Gas Exchange: The Roles of Respiratory Pigments

12.4.4 Carbon Dioxide Transport

12.4.5 Structure of the Human Heart

12.5.1 Maintaining the Human Heartbeat

12.5.2 Human Circulation: Blood Vessels

12.6.1 Human Circulation: Blood Pressure

12.6.2 Blood Clotting

12.7.1 Human Excretion: Waste Processing

12.7.2 Human Excretion: Urinary System Structure

12.7.3 The Nephron: Blood Filtration and Urine Production

12.8.1 The Immune Response: Nonspecific Defenses

12.8.2 The Immune System: Structure and Function

12.8.3 Immunity: Clonal Selection Theory

12.8.4 Immune Response: An Overview

12.8.5 T Cells: Helper T Activation

12.8.6 T Cells: Helper and Cytotoxic T Cell Effects

12.9.1 B Cells: The Humoral Response

12.9.2 Antibodies and DNA Rearrangement

12.9.3 Antibody Mechanisms

12.10.1 HIV: An Attack on the Immune System

12.11.1 Human Regulation: Endocrine Control and Signal-Transduction Pathways

12.11.2 The Endocrine System

12.11.3 Endocrine Function: Oscillations in Hormone Levels

12.12.1 The Ovarian and Uterine Cycles: Preparation for Pregnancy

12.12.2 Hormonal Events during the Female Reproductive Cycle

12.13.1 The Central and Peripheral Nervous Systems and the Neuron

12.13.2 Human Regulation: Nervous System: Nerve Function and Reflexes

12.14.1 Human Regulation: The Nerve Impulse: General Events

12.14.2 Human Regulation: The Nervous System and the Action Potential

12.14.3 Human Regulation: Synaptic Events: Cell-Cell Communication

12.14.4 The Nervous System: A Phylogenetic Perspective

12.14.5 The Human Brain

12.14.6 Processing Centers of the Human Brain

12.15.1 Motor Control: Muscle Microstructure

12.15.2 The Neuromuscular Junction: The Contraction Is Triggered

12.15.3 The Sliding Filament: Interaction of ATP, Actin, Myosin, and Calcium

12.15.4 Muscle Structure and Action

12.16.1 Sensory Systems: An Introduction

12.16.2 Photoreceptors and the Vertebrate Eye

12.16.3 The Ear and Equilibrium

12.16.4 The Ear and Hearing

13.1.1 Plant Development: Germination

13.1.2 Plant Development: Cell Structure and Function

13.1.3 Primary Growth: Root Growth and Development

13.1.4 Primary Growth: Stem Growth and Development

13.1.5 Secondary Growth: Lateral Meristems and Secondary Vascular Tissue

13.2.1 Regulation in Plants

13.2.2 Plant Hormones

13.2.3 Signal Transduction Pathways in Plants

13.3.1 Photoperiodism in Plants: Control of Flowering

13.3.2 Phytochromes and the Photoperiodic Response

13.4.1 Transport in Angiosperms: Transpiration

13.4.2 The Role of Xylem Tissue and Stomata

13.4.3 Plant Transport: Absorption and Lateral Transport in Roots

13.4.4 Phloem: The Movement of Sap

14.1.1 Ecological Organization: The Functional Divisions of the Ecologist

14.2.1 Land Biomes: An Overview

14.2.2 Terrestrial Biomes: Water-Limited Environments

14.2.3 Aquatic Biomes

14.3.1 Ecology at the Level of the Species: Behavior

14.3.2 Imprinting and Innate Behavior

14.3.3 Nature vs. Nurture: Is There a Genetic Basis for Behaviors?

14.4.1 Competitive Behaviors and Survivability

14.4.2 Courtship and Mating Behaviors: Survivability

14.5.1 Population Ecology: Populations with Unlimited Resources

14.5.2 Population Ecology: The Reality of Limited Resources

14.5.3 Population Ecology: Population Strategy: r vs. K

14.5.4 Population Ecology: Intraspecific Competition

14.6.1 Community Ecology: Interspecific Interaction: Predation

14.6.2 Interspecific Competition: Ecological Niches

14.6.3 Interspecific Associations: Symbiosis

14.7.1 Community Disturbance: Succession

14.7.2 Secondary Succession

14.8.1 The Decline in Species Diversity and the Current Mass Extinction

14.9.1 Ecosystems: A Flow of Energy

14.9.2 Ecosystems: Productivity and Energy Flow

14.9.3 Productivity Pyramids: Visualizing Energy Flows

14.9.4 Productivity Pyramids: Pyramid of Numbers

14.10.1 Ecosystems and Material Cycles: Water, Carbon, and Sulfur

14.10.2 Ecosystems and Material Cycles: Nitrogen and Phosphorus Cycles

14.11.1 The Effects of Human Population Growth: Lake Eutrophication

14.11.2 Toxic Accumulation and Ozone Depletion