10.1.3 The Hardy-Weinberg Equation Flashcards

AP Biology :!: (383 decks)

• 1.1.1 Properties of Life
• 1.2.1 An Introduction to Biology
• 1.2.2 The Nature of Science: The Story of Darwin
• 1.2.3 Early Scientific Thought
• 1.2.4 The Emerging Science of Geology
• 1.3.1 Linnaeus, Buffon, and Lamarck
• 1.3.2 Darwin: The Voyage Continues
• 1.3.3 Darwin: More Observations
• 1.4.1 Darwin: The Theory of Natural Selection
• 1.4.2 The Theory of Natural Selection
• 1.4.3 Contrasting Lamarck and Darwin
• 1.4.4 Contrasting Lamarck and Darwin, Part II
• 1.5.1 Fossil Formation, Dating, and Indexing
• 1.5.2 The Fossil Record
• 1.5.3 Some Fossil Surprises
• 1.5.4 The Coevolution of Horses and Plants
• 1.5.5 Mass Extinctions: An Asteroid Can Ruin Your Day
• 1.6.1 Human Evolution: What Is a Primate?
• 1.6.2 Human Evolution: The Family Tree
• 1.6.3 Human Evolution: The Fossil Record
• 1.7.1 Evidence for Evolution: Biochemical Similarities
• 1.7.2 Evidence for Evolution: Vestigial Structures
• 1.7.3 Homologous Structures
• 1.8.1 Species Concepts
• 1.8.2 Speciation
• 1.8.3 Prezygotic Reproductive Isolation
• 1.8.4 Postzygotic Reproductive Isolation
• 1.9.1 Artificial Selection in Action
• 1.9.2 Natural Selection in Action
• 1.10.1 History of Life: The Heterotroph Hypothesis: An Overview
• 1.10.2 The Heterotroph Hypothesis: An Introduction
• 1.10.3 The Origin of Life: Life from Nonlife
• 1.10.4 The Heterotroph Hypothesis: Protobionts
• 1.10.5 The Heterotroph Hypothesis: The First Genetic Material
• 1.10.6 The Origin of Life: The Rest of the Story
• 1.11.1 The Linnaean System
• 1.11.2 The Linnaean System: Still Changing
• 2.1.1 Atomic Structure: SPONCH and the Atom
• 2.1.2 Electrons, Orbitals, and Electron Shells
• 2.1.3 Ions, Ionization, and Isotopes
• 2.1.4 Isotopes: Unraveling Photosynthesis
• 2.2.1 Bonding and Electronegativity
• 2.2.2 Ionic and Covalent Bonds
• 2.2.3 Polar Covalent Bonds, Hydrogen Bonds, and Van der Waals Interactions
• 2.3.1 Water: Hydrogen Bonding, Solubility, and Specific Heat
• 2.3.2 Water: Adhesion, Cohesion, and a Solid That Floats
• 2.3.3 Water: Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic Substance
• 2.3.4 Dissociation of Water and the pH Scale
• 2.3.5 Hemoglobin as a Buffer
• 2.4.1 Carbon Chemistry and Isomers
• 2.4.2 Functional Side Groups
• 2.5.1 Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides
• 2.5.2 Dehydration Synthesis and Hydrolysis: Disaccharides
• 2.5.3 Polysaccharides: Energy Storage Molecules
• 2.5.4 Polysaccharides: Structural Molecules
• 2.6.1 Lipids: An Introduction
• 2.6.2 Saturated vs. Unsaturated Fats
• 2.6.3 Phospholipids, Waxes, and Steroids
• 2.6.4 Nucleic Acids: An Introduction to Genetic Material
• 2.7.1 Proteins: Amino Acids and the Peptide Bond
• 2.7.2 Amino Acids: The R Groups
• 2.7.3 Primary and Secondary Structure
• 2.7.4 Tertiary Structure
• 2.7.5 Quaternary Structure
• 2.7.6 Protein Structure: A Summary
• 2.8.1 Bioenergetics: The Laws of Thermodynamics
• 2.8.2 Activation Energy
• 2.8.3 Enzyme Characteristics
• 2.9.1 Enzyme Action: The Induced-Fit Model
• 2.9.2 Enzyme Regulation: Allosteric Regulation
• 2.9.3 Feedback Inhibition and Cooperativity
• 3.1.1 The History of Cytology
• 3.1.2 Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes
• 3.1.3 Plant and Animal Cell Overview: The Basics
• 3.1.4 Membranes: Basic Structure
• 3.1.5 The Nuclear Envelope: The Initial Tour
• 3.1.6 Nuclear Function: Who's in Charge?
• 3.2.1 Cellular Function: Endoplasmic Reticulum
• 3.2.2 Cell Function: Golgi Apparatus
• 3.2.3 Food Vacuole Formation: The Role of the Lysosome
• 3.2.4 Still More Vacuoles and Peroxisomes
• 3.2.5 Mitochondria: Welcome Guests
• 3.2.6 The Origin of Mitochondria and Chloroplasts
• 3.3.1 The Cytoskeleton: Basic Components
• 3.3.2 Centrioles, Flagella, and Cilia
• 3.3.3 Cell Walls
• 3.4.1 Plasma Membrane: The Extracellular Matrix
• 3.4.2 The Plasma Membrane: The Fluid-Mosaic Model
• 3.4.3 Proteins as the Mosaic of the Cell Membrane
• 3.4.4 Animal Cell Junctions
• 3.5.1 Simple and Facilitated Diffusion
• 3.5.2 Passive Transport: Osmosis
• 3.5.3 Active Transport: Ion Pumps and Cotransport
• 3.5.4 Active Transport: The Sodium-Potassium Pump
• 3.5.5 Energy-Requiring Transport: Endocytosis and Exocytosis
• 3.6.1 Tools of the Cytologist: Light and Fluorescent Microscopy
• 3.6.2 Scanning and Transmission Electron Microscopes
• 3.6.3 Freeze Fracture and Differential Centrifugation
• 3.7.1 Major Modes of Nutrition Among Organisms
• 4.1.1 ATP Structure and Function
• 4.1.2 Phosphorylated Intermediates
• 4.1.3 Respiration: An Overview
• 4.1.4 Redox: A Brief Review
• 4.1.5 Energy Release from Sugar: A Demo
• 4.1.6 Coenzymes: The Role of NAD+
• 4.2.1 Glycolysis: The Initial Steps: Energy Input
• 4.2.2 Glycolysis: The Energy Payoff
• 4.2.3 Anaerobic Respiration: The Fermentation of Pyruvate
• 4.3.1 Aerobic Respiration: The Acetyl CoA Step
• 4.3.2 Aerobic Respiration: The Krebs Cycle
• 4.3.3 Glycolysis and the Krebs Cycle
• 4.4.1 The Electron Transport Chain
• 4.4.2 Oxidative Phosphorylation
• 4.4.3 ATP Yield from Aerobic Respiration
• 4.4.4 Other Fuels in Respiration
• 4.4.5 The Evolution of Glycolysis
• 5.1.1 The Unraveling of Photosynthesis: A Historical Perspective
• 5.1.2 Photosynthesis: Twentieth-Century Breakthroughs
• 5.1.3 Photosynthesis: The Final Picture
• 5.2.1 The Leaf: Adaptations for Photosynthesis
• 5.2.2 The Structure of a Chloroplast
• 5.2.3 Photosynthetic Pigments
• 5.2.4 The Nature of Light
• 5.2.5 Photoexcitation and Electron Transfer
• 5.3.1 The Light Reactions: An Introduction
• 5.3.2 Photosystem 1
• 5.3.3 Photosystem 2
• 5.3.4 The Light Reactions: A Summary
• 5.4.1 The Calvin Cycle
• 5.4.2 The Calvin Cycle: RuBP Regeneration
• 5.4.3 A Review of Photosynthesis
• 5.5.1 Photorespiration
• 5.5.2 C4 Plants and CAM Plants
• 5.5.3 The Evolution of Photosynthesis
• 6.1.1 Molecular Genetics: The Protein vs. DNA Debate
• 6.1.2 Continuing to Link Genes to Chemicals: Muller, Beadle, and Tatum
• 6.1.3 Griffith and Transformation
• 6.1.4 Avery, MacLeod and McCarty/Hershey and Chase: DNA Wins!
• 6.1.5 Chargaff and Franklin and Wilkins: The DNA Story Begins
• 6.2.1 Watson and Crick: The Clues
• 6.2.2 Watson and Crick: The Double Helix
• 6.3.1 Replication: Meselson and Stahl
• 6.3.2 DNA: Polymerization with Triphosphate Nucleotides
• 6.4.1 Events at the Replication Fork: The Leading Strand
• 6.4.2 Events at the Leading Strand, Part II
• 6.4.3 Events at the Replication Fork: The Lagging Strand
• 6.4.4 Proofreading, End Replication, and Telomeres
• 6.4.5 DNA Replication: A Summary
• 6.5.1 Transcription and Translation: An Overview
• 6.5.2 Transcription: RNA Formation from the DNA Template
• 6.5.3 Transcription: Termination and RNA Protection
• 6.5.4 Posttranscriptional Modification/RNA Splicing
• 6.6.1 Translation: Ribosomal and Transfer RNA
• 6.6.2 The Role of Transfer RNA: Charging a tRNA Molecule
• 6.6.3 Translation: Initiation Events
• 6.6.4 Translation/Elongation: The Initiation of Elongation
• 6.6.5 Elongation Continued and Termination
• 6.7.1 Polypeptide Destinations: Signal Peptides and ER Ribosomes
• 6.7.2 Protein Synthesis: An Overview
• 6.8.1 Control Mechanisms: Lactose Metabolism in E. coli
• 6.8.2 Jacob and Monod's Model: The lac Operon
• 6.8.3 lac Operon: The Summary
• 6.9.1 The Eukaryotic Genome: DNA Packing
• 6.9.2 Eukaryotic Genomic Organization: Repetitive DNA
• 6.9.3 Eukaryotic Genomic Organization: Gene Families
• 6.9.4 Eukaryotic Genomic Organization: Transposons and Amplified Genes
• 6.10.1 Eukaryotic Gene Control: Transcriptional Controls
• 6.10.2 Eukaryotic Control Mechanisms: Posttranscriptional and Posttranslational Controls
• 6.10.3 Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes: Protein-Making Machinery
• 7.1.1 Biotechnology: Plasmids in Prokaryotes
• 7.1.2 Using a Restriction Enzyme to Create a Vector
• 7.1.3 Biotechnology: Gene Cloning
• 7.1.4 Biotechnology: Detection of Cell Clones
• 7.2.1 Biotechnology: Reverse Transcriptase: A Tool Taken from Viruses
• 7.2.2 Using Reverse Transcriptase to Make cDNA
• 7.2.3 Electrophoresis: Separating DNA
• 7.2.4 Sequencing DNA: The Sanger Method
• 7.3.1 Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms: Genetic Markers
• 7.3.2 Polymerase Chain Reaction: DNA Amplification
• 7.3.3 DNA Fingerprinting
• 7.3.4 Southern Blotting
• 7.3.5 Detecting DNA Homology: A Biotechnology Summary
• 7.4.1 The Human Gene Pool
• 7.4.2 The Human Genome Project: Recent Findings
• 7.4.3 The Human Genome Project: Applications
• 8.1.1 The Eukaryotic Cell Cycle
• 8.1.2 Mitosis: An Overview
• 8.1.3 Mitosis: The Phases
• 8.1.4 Cytokinesis
• 8.2.1 Cell-Cycle Regulation: Protein Kinases
• 8.2.2 Cell-Cycle Regulation: Other Mechanisms
• 8.2.3 Cancer: When Mitosis Goes Unchecked
• 8.2.4 The ras Gene and the p53 Gene
• 8.3.1 Sexual Reproduction and the Role of Meiosis
• 8.3.2 Homologous Chromosomes: Thanks, Mom and Dad!
• 8.3.3 Meiosis: Prophase I
• 8.3.4 Disjunction and Meiosis II
• 8.3.5 Mitosis vs. Meiosis
• 8.4.1 Independent Assortment
• 8.4.2 Spermatogenesis: Meiosis in Males
• 8.4.3 Oogenesis: Meiosis in Females
• 9.1.1 Heredity: The Story of Gregor Mendel
• 9.1.2 Mendel's Findings: A First Look at Phenotypic Ratios
• 9.1.3 Mendel's Conclusions: Alternate Alleles and Dominance
• 9.1.4 Mendel's Conclusions: Segregation and Recombination
• 9.2.1 Determining Heterozygosity: Test Crosses and Back Crosses
• 9.2.2 Mendelian Inheritance
• 9.3.1 Segregation and Independent Assortment
• 9.3.2 Independent Assortment: An Explanation
• 9.4.1 Laws of Probability: Rule of Multiplication
• 9.4.2 The Multiplicative Law: Some Extensions
• 9.4.3 Laws of Probability: The Additive Rule
• 9.4.4 Using the Laws of Probability in Dihybrid Crosses
• 9.5.1 What Is a Dominant Gene? Intermediate Inheritance
• 9.5.2 Codominance and Multiple Alleles: ABO Blood Genes
• 9.5.3 ABO Blood Groups: Inheritance Patterns and Pedigree Charts
• 9.6.1 Epistasis: One Gene Affecting Another
• 9.6.2 The Bombay Phenotype: Infidelity or Epistasis?
• 9.7.1 Polygenic Inheritance
• 9.7.2 Pleiotropy: Multiple Phenotypic Effects
• 9.7.3 Sickle Cell Anemia: The Case against Dominant and Recessive
• 9.8.1 Linked Genes
• 9.8.2 Crossing Over and Recombination: A Tool for Mapping Genes
• 9.8.3 Gene Mapping Using Recombination Frequencies
• 9.8.4 Linking Genes to Chromosomes: The Work of Morgan
• 9.8.5 Morgan's Conclusions
• 9.9.1 Sex-Linked Traits in Humans
• 9.9.2 X Inactivation in Humans
• 9.9.3 The Use of Pedigree Charts to Determine Possible Genotypes
• 9.9.4 Pedigree Chart: Problem Review
• 9.10.1 Problems in Heredity
• 9.10.2 Problems in Heredity: Chromosomal Aberrations
• 9.10.3 Translocations: 14/21 Downs
• 9.11.1 Genetic Mutation
• 9.11.2 Genetic Mutation: Different Forms of Point Mutations
• 9.11.3 Genetic Mutation: Insertion and Deletion
• 9.11.4 Genetic Screening
• 10.1.1 Population Genetics: Darwin Meets Mendel
• 10.1.2 An Introduction to Hardy-Weinberg Theory
• 10.1.3 The Hardy-Weinberg Equation
• 10.1.4 Using the Hardy-Weinberg Theory
• 10.1.5 Using the Hardy-Weinberg Theory II
• 10.1.6 Hardy-Weinberg: What Does This Have to Do with Evolution?
• 10.2.1 Microevolution by Genetic Drift
• 10.2.2 Microevolution: Continued
• 10.3.1 Variations Within and Between Populations
• 10.3.2 Modes of Selection
• 10.3.3 The Perfect Organism
• 10.4.1 Speciation: What Is a Species?
• 10.4.2 Allopatric Speciation
• 10.4.3 Sympatric Speciation
• 10.5.1 Time Frame for Evolution: Gradualism vs. Punctuated Equilibrium
• 11.1.1 Classifying the Products of Evolution: Taxonomy
• 11.1.2 Building a Cladogram
• 11.1.3 Molecular Methods for Classifying Organisms
• 11.1.4 A Phylogenetic Tree of Organisms: A Three-Domain System
• 11.2.1 The Archaea
• 11.3.1 The Bacteria
• 11.4.1 Protists: Archaezoa and Euglenozoa
• 11.4.2 Protists: Alveolata and Stramenopila
• 11.5.1 Plant Phylogeny: The Colonization of Land
• 11.5.2 Plant Phylogeny and Alternation of Generations
• 11.6.1 Alternation of Generations: Mosses
• 11.6.2 Alternation of Generations: Ferns
• 11.6.3 Alternation of Generations: Gymnosperms
• 11.7.1 Alternation of Generations: The Structure of a Flower
• 11.7.2 Alternation of Generations: Angiosperms
• 11.7.3 Embryogenesis in Angiosperms: Dicots and Monocots
• 11.8.1 Introduction to the Fungi
• 11.8.2 Diversity of Fungi
• 11.9.1 Constructing a Phylogenetic Tree of Animals: Animal Development
• 11.9.2 Developmental Data for the Phylogenetic Tree of Animals
• 11.9.3 The Formation of Body Cavities
• 11.9.4 Protostomes and Deuterostomes
• 11.9.5 Animal Diversity: The Cambrian Explosion and the Move to Land
• 11.10.1 Introduction to Animals: Parazoa and Radiata
• 11.10.2 Animals: Acoelomates, Pseudocoelomates, and Coelomates
• 11.10.3 Diversity of Protostome Species
• 11.11.1 Diversity of Deuterostome Species
• 11.11.2 Diversity of Vertebrate Species
• 11.12.1 Animal Development: A Close-up Look at Fertilization Events
• 11.12.2 Cleavage, Gastrulation, and Organogenesis: A Closer Look
• 11.12.3 Events of Gastrulation and Organogenesis
• 11.13.1 Pattern Formation in Drosophila
• 11.13.2 Pattern Formation in Drosophila, continued
• 11.14.1 Viruses and Prions: Living or Nonliving?
• 12.1.1 Animal Homeostasis
• 12.1.2 Mechanisms of Homeostasis
• 12.1.3 Animal Tissues: Epithelial Tissue
• 12.1.4 Animal Tissues: Loose Connective Tissue
• 12.1.5 Animal Tissues: Dense, Fluid, and Supportive Connective Tissue
• 12.1.6 Animal Tissue: Muscle and Nerve Tissue
• 12.2.1 The Structure of Bone
• 12.3.1 Introduction to the Digestive System
• 12.3.2 The Beginning of Chemical Digestion
• 12.3.3 Chemical Digestion in the Small Intestine
• 12.3.4 Human Nutrition: Absorption
• 12.3.5 The Fate of Absorbed Nutrients
• 12.3.6 Egestion
• 12.4.1 Introduction to the Gas Exchange of Animals
• 12.4.2 Human Gas Exchange System
• 12.4.3 Human Gas Exchange: The Roles of Respiratory Pigments
• 12.4.4 Carbon Dioxide Transport
• 12.4.5 Structure of the Human Heart
• 12.5.1 Maintaining the Human Heartbeat
• 12.5.2 Human Circulation: Blood Vessels
• 12.6.1 Human Circulation: Blood Pressure
• 12.6.2 Blood Clotting
• 12.7.1 Human Excretion: Waste Processing
• 12.7.2 Human Excretion: Urinary System Structure
• 12.7.3 The Nephron: Blood Filtration and Urine Production
• 12.8.1 The Immune Response: Nonspecific Defenses
• 12.8.2 The Immune System: Structure and Function
• 12.8.3 Immunity: Clonal Selection Theory
• 12.8.4 Immune Response: An Overview
• 12.8.5 T Cells: Helper T Activation
• 12.8.6 T Cells: Helper and Cytotoxic T Cell Effects
• 12.9.1 B Cells: The Humoral Response
• 12.9.2 Antibodies and DNA Rearrangement
• 12.9.3 Antibody Mechanisms
• 12.10.1 HIV: An Attack on the Immune System
• 12.11.1 Human Regulation: Endocrine Control and Signal-Transduction Pathways
• 12.11.2 The Endocrine System
• 12.11.3 Endocrine Function: Oscillations in Hormone Levels
• 12.12.1 The Ovarian and Uterine Cycles: Preparation for Pregnancy
• 12.12.2 Hormonal Events during the Female Reproductive Cycle
• 12.13.1 The Central and Peripheral Nervous Systems and the Neuron
• 12.13.2 Human Regulation: Nervous System: Nerve Function and Reflexes
• 12.14.1 Human Regulation: The Nerve Impulse: General Events
• 12.14.2 Human Regulation: The Nervous System and the Action Potential
• 12.14.3 Human Regulation: Synaptic Events: Cell-Cell Communication
• 12.14.4 The Nervous System: A Phylogenetic Perspective
• 12.14.5 The Human Brain
• 12.14.6 Processing Centers of the Human Brain
• 12.15.1 Motor Control: Muscle Microstructure
• 12.15.2 The Neuromuscular Junction: The Contraction Is Triggered
• 12.15.3 The Sliding Filament: Interaction of ATP, Actin, Myosin, and Calcium
• 12.15.4 Muscle Structure and Action
• 12.16.1 Sensory Systems: An Introduction
• 12.16.2 Photoreceptors and the Vertebrate Eye
• 12.16.3 The Ear and Equilibrium
• 12.16.4 The Ear and Hearing
• 13.1.1 Plant Development: Germination
• 13.1.2 Plant Development: Cell Structure and Function
• 13.1.3 Primary Growth: Root Growth and Development
• 13.1.4 Primary Growth: Stem Growth and Development
• 13.1.5 Secondary Growth: Lateral Meristems and Secondary Vascular Tissue
• 13.2.1 Regulation in Plants
• 13.2.2 Plant Hormones
• 13.2.3 Signal Transduction Pathways in Plants
• 13.3.1 Photoperiodism in Plants: Control of Flowering
• 13.3.2 Phytochromes and the Photoperiodic Response
• 13.4.1 Transport in Angiosperms: Transpiration
• 13.4.2 The Role of Xylem Tissue and Stomata
• 13.4.3 Plant Transport: Absorption and Lateral Transport in Roots
• 13.4.4 Phloem: The Movement of Sap
• 14.1.1 Ecological Organization: The Functional Divisions of the Ecologist
• 14.2.1 Land Biomes: An Overview
• 14.2.2 Terrestrial Biomes: Water-Limited Environments
• 14.2.3 Aquatic Biomes
• 14.3.1 Ecology at the Level of the Species: Behavior
• 14.3.2 Imprinting and Innate Behavior
• 14.3.3 Nature vs. Nurture: Is There a Genetic Basis for Behaviors?
• 14.4.1 Competitive Behaviors and Survivability
• 14.4.2 Courtship and Mating Behaviors: Survivability
• 14.5.1 Population Ecology: Populations with Unlimited Resources
• 14.5.2 Population Ecology: The Reality of Limited Resources
• 14.5.3 Population Ecology: Population Strategy: r vs. K
• 14.5.4 Population Ecology: Intraspecific Competition
• 14.6.1 Community Ecology: Interspecific Interaction: Predation
• 14.6.2 Interspecific Competition: Ecological Niches
• 14.6.3 Interspecific Associations: Symbiosis
• 14.7.1 Community Disturbance: Succession
• 14.7.2 Secondary Succession
• 14.8.1 The Decline in Species Diversity and the Current Mass Extinction
• 14.9.1 Ecosystems: A Flow of Energy
• 14.9.2 Ecosystems: Productivity and Energy Flow
• 14.9.3 Productivity Pyramids: Visualizing Energy Flows
• 14.9.4 Productivity Pyramids: Pyramid of Numbers
• 14.10.1 Ecosystems and Material Cycles: Water, Carbon, and Sulfur
• 14.10.2 Ecosystems and Material Cycles: Nitrogen and Phosphorus Cycles
• 14.11.1 The Effects of Human Population Growth: Lake Eutrophication
• 14.11.2 Toxic Accumulation and Ozone Depletion