Week 6: Neurobiology Flashcards
The Brain, Psychophysiological Methods in Neuroscience, The Nervous System
Metabolites
A substance necessary for a living organism to maintain life (oxygen, glucose)
The Nervous System
complex biological organ; enables many animals including humans to function in a coordinated fashion; evolved over time
Homo Habilis
A human ancestor, handy man, that lived two million years ago
Used crude stone tools
Homo Sapiens
Modern man, the only surviving form of the genus Homo
Uses modern tools
Ectoderm
Outermost layer of a developing fetus
Neural Induction
A process that causes the formation of the neural tube
Rostrocaudal
A front-back plane used to identify anatomical structures in the body and the brain
Spina Bifida
Developmental disease of the spinal cord, where the neural tube does not close caudally; part of spinal cord is exposed cuz it didn’t close properly at the end
Forebrain
Part of the nervous system that contains teh cerebral hemispheres, thalamus, and hypothalamus
Neuroblasts
Brain progenitor cells that asymmetrically divide into other neuroblasts or nerve cells
baby nerve cells
Neuroepithelium
The lining of the neural tube
Neural Crest
group of special cells that form at top of neural tube (which becomes brain and spinal cord) during early development
A set of primordial neurons that migrate outside the neural tube and give rise to sensory and autonomic neurons in the peripheral nervous system
Autonomic Nervous Systems
controls automatic functions in body (heart rate, digestion) by sending signals to glands and smoothing muscles
A part of the peripheral nervous system that connects to glands and smooth muscles; consists of sympathetic and parasmpathetic divisions
Somatic Nervous System
A part of the peripheral nervous system that uses cranial and spinal nerves in voluntary actions, like moving a muscle
Parasympathetic Nervous Systems
A division of the autonomic nervous system that is slower than its counterpart - that is, the sympathetic nervous system - and works in opposition to it; generally engaged in “rest and digest” functions
helps body relax and recover after stress/activity
Sympathetic Nervous System
A division of the autonomic nervous system that is faster than its counterpart that is the parasympathetic nervous system and works in opposition to it; generally engaged in “fight or flight” functions
The Peripheral Nervous System
helps brain and spinal cord connect/communicate w rest of body; exists outside the brain
SOMATIC - CRANIAL nerves/SPINAL nerves (voluntary actions)
AUTONOMIC - SYMPATHETIC nervous system/PARASYMPATHETIC nervous system (involuntary actions)
Central Nervous System
Cerebellum
Consists of left and right hemispheres that sit at the top of the nervous system and engages in a variety of higher-order functions
A nervous system structure behind and below the cerebrum; controls motor movement coordination, balance, equilibrium, and muscle tone
Sulcus
The crevices or fissures formed by convolutions in the brain - when cerebellum is crumpled into skull it forms furros called sulci
(plural form, Sulci)
Gyrus
A bulge that is raised between or among fissures of the convoluted brain - bulges between sulci
(Plural form, Gyri)
Central Sulcus
The major fissure that divides the frontal and the parietal lobes
Lateral Sulcus
The major fissure that delineates the temporal lobe below the frontal and the parietal lobes
Temporal Lobe
An area of the cerebrum that lies below the lateral sulcus; contains auditory and olfactory (smell) projection regions
Wernicke’s area (understanding language); amygdala (emotions); memory (hippocampus)
Primary Motor Cortex
A strip of cortex just in front of the central sulcus that is involved w motor control
Magnification Factor
Cortical space projected by an area of sensory input (ex. mm of cortex per degree of visual field)
Broca’s Area
An area in the frontal lobe of the left hemisphere; implicated in language production
Frontal Lobe
The most forward region (Close to forehead) of the cerebral hemispheres
thinking, planning, problem-solving
broca’s area is in it
Aphasias
Due to damage of the Broca’s area; an inability to produce or understand words
Working Memory
The form of memory we use to hold onto information temporarily; usually for the purposes of manipulation
Parietal Lobe
An area of the cerebrum just behind the central sulcus that is engaged w somatosensory and gustatory sensation
processes sensory info and spatial awareness
Primary Somatosensory Cortex
A strip of cerebral tissue just behind the central sulcus engaged in sensory reception of bodily sensations
Wernicke’s Area
A language area in the left temporal lobe where linguistic information is comprehended
Arcuate Fasciculus
A fiber that connects Wernicke’s and Broca’s speech areas
Agnosias
Due to damage of Wernicke’s area; an inability to recognize objects, words, or faces
Occipital lobe
processes visual info
The back part of the cerebrum, which houses the visual areas
Thalamus
brain’s relay station; receives sensory info (except smell) and sends it to appropriate part of brain for processing
A part of the diencephalon that works as a gateway for incoming and outgoing information
Transduction
A process in which physical energy converts into neural energy
Limbic System
A loosely defined network of nuclei in the brain involved w learning and emotion
amgydala, hippocampus, hypothalamus
Hippocampus
responsible for forming new memoreis and learning
A nucleus inside (medial) the temporal lobe implicated in learning and memory
Fornix
bridge that helps hippocampus communicate w other brain areas for memory, emotions, learning
A nerve fiber tract that connects the hippocampus to mammillary bodies
Cingulate Gyrus
A medial cortical portion of the nervous tissue that is a part of the limbic system
Globus Pallidus
A nucleus of the basal ganglia
Hypothalamus
helps control drives like hunger, thirst, temp regulation
Part of the diencephalon; regulates biological drives w pituitary gland
Pons
largest part of CNS; in the brain stem; communication bridge for breathing, sleeping, facial movements to different parts of the brain
A bridge that connects the cerebral cortex w the medulla, and reciprocally transfers information back and forth between the brain and the spinal cord
Medulla Oblongata
An area just above the spinal cord that processes breathing, digestion, heart and blood vessel function, swallowing, and sneezing
Gray Matter
brain’s processing centre full of neuorns that handle thinking, feeling, controlling body movements
Composes the bark or the cortex of the cerebrum and consists of the cell bodies of the neurons
White matter
Regions of the nervous sytem that represent the axons of the nerve cells; whitish in colour because of myelination of the nerve cells
Imunocytochemistry
A method of staining tissue including the brain, using antibodies
Lesion Studies
A surgical method in which a part of the animal brain is removed to study its effects on behaviour or function
Event-related potentials
A physiological measure of large electrical change in the brain produced by sensory stimulation or motor responses
Computerized axial tomography (CAT)
A noninvasive brain-scanning procedure that uses X-ray absorption around the head
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
Brain imaging noninvasive technique that uses magnetic energy to generate brain images
Psychophysiological methods
Any research method in which the dependent variable is a physiological measure and the independent variable is behavioural or mental (such as memory)
ex. EEG, skin conductance, fMRI (blood flow - conductance)
Neuroscience methods
A research method that deals w the structure or function of the nervous system and brain
Invasive
A procedure that involves the skin being broken or an instrument or chemical being introduced into a body cavity
Lesions
Abnormalities in the tissue of an organism usually caused by disease or trauma
Noninvasive
A procedure that does not require the insertion of an instrument or chemical through the skin or into a body cavity
Hemoglobin
protein in red blood cell that carry oxygen around the body
The oxygen-carrying portion of a red blood cell
Oxygenated hemoglobin
Hemoglobin carrying oxygen
Deoxygenated hemoglobin
Hemoglobin not carrying oxygen - oxygen molecules have all been released
Blood-oxygen-level-dependent (BOLD)
it’s how scientists use changes in oxygen levels in brain to study brain activity through fMRI
the signal typically measured in fMRI that results from changes in the ratio of oxygenated hemoglobin to deoxygenated hemoglobin the blood
Temporal Resolution
how quickly/accurately a method can detect changes over time
Refers to how small a unit of time can be measured; high temporal resolution means capable of resolving very small units of time; in neuroscience it describes how precisely in time a process can be measured in the brain
Spatial Resolution
how clearly/accurately a method can locate/differentiate areas/details in tehb rain - how small of a brain structure can be seen
Refers to how small the elements of an image are; high spatial resolution means the device/technique can resolve very small elements; in neuroscience it describes how small of a structure in the brain can be imaged
Voltage
Difference in electric charge between two points
Positron
A particle having the same mass and numerically equal but positive charge as an electron
Depolarization
A change in a cell’s membrane potential, making the inside of the cell more positive and increasing the chance of an action potential
Hyperpolarization
A change in a cell’s membrane potential, making the inside of the cell more negative and decreasing the chance of an action potential
Neural Plasticity
Ability of synapses and neural pathways to change over time and adapt to changes in neural process, behaviour or environment
Peripheral nervous system
The part of the nervous system that is outside the brain and spinal cord
Electroencephalography (EEG)
A neuroimaging technique that measures *electrical brain activity via multiple electrodes on the scalp *
used to measure BRAIN WAVES and study brain activity
Technique for studying brain activation; uses at least two and sometimes up to 256 electrodes to measure the difference in electrical charge (the VOLTAGE) between pairs of points on the head; in contrast to fMRI, EEG measures neural activity directly, rather than a correlate of that activity
Poor spatial resolution; Provides highest level of temporal resolution
Electromyography (EMG)
Measures electrical activity produced by skeletal muscles; measures voltage between two points; technique can be used to determine muscle activity in research and emotion research
When to use what..
If you are interested in what brain structures are associated with cognitive control, you wouldn’t use peripheral nervous system measures. A technique such as fMRI or PET might be more appropriate.
If you are interested in how cognitive control unfolds over time, EEG or MEG would be a good choice.
Magneotencephalography (MEG)
Technique for non-invasively measuring neural activity; flow of electrical charge (the current) associated w neural activity produces very weak magnetic fields that can be detected by sensors placed near the participant’s scalp
Great temporal resolution; not as suscpetible to distortions from the skull/scalp; MEG recording apparatus is much more expensive than EEG, less widely available
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)
A neuroimaging technique that infers brain activity by measuring changes in oxygen levels in the blood.
Method used to assess changes in activity of tissue, such as measuring changes in neural activity in different areas of the brain during thought; measures the change in the concentration of oxygenated hemoglobin, known as the BOLD signal
- fMRI measures blood volume and blood flow, and from this we infer neural activity; fMRI doesn’t measure neural activity directly
- fMRI data typically have poor temporal resolution; however when combined w sMRI, fMRI provides excellent spatial resolution
Method is valuable for identifying specific areas of the brain that are associated w different physical or psychological tasks; Clinically, fMRI may be used prior to neurosurgery in order to identify areas that are associated with language so that the surgeon can avoid those areas during the operation. fMRI allows researchers to identify differential or convergent patterns of activation associated with tasks
Brain Stem
the “trunk” of the brain comprised of the medulla, pons, midbrain, and diencephalon - collectively, these regions also are involved in our sleep-wake cycle, some sensory nd motor function, as well as growth and other hormonal behaiours
Responsible for many of the neural functions that keep us alive, including regulating our respiration (breathing), heart rate, and digestion
“life support” needed for severe damage to brain stem
“brain dead” - loss of brain stem function
Cerebellum
A nervous system structure behind and below the cerebrum; controls motor movement coordination, balance, equilibrium, and muscle tone
The distinctive structure at the back of the brain
Cerebrum
Consists of left and right hemispheres that sit at the top of the nervous system and engages in a variety of higher-order functions
Cerebral hemispheres
Cerebral cortex, underlying white matter, and subcortical structures; responsible for our cognitive abilities and conscious experience
Cerebral Cortex
The outermost grey matter of the cerebrum; the distinctive convolutions characteristic of the mammalian brain
Subcortical
Structures that lie beneath the cerebral cortex, but above the brain stem
Somatosensory (body sensations) Cortex
The region of the parietal lobe responsible for bodily sensations; the somatosensory cortex has a contralateral representation of the human body
Motor Cortex
Region of the frontal lobe responsible for voluntary movement; the motor cortex has a contralateral representation of the human body
Basal Ganglia
Subcortical structures of the cerebral hemispheres involved in voluntary movement
Contralateral
Literally “opposite side’; used to refer to the fact that the two hemispheres of the brain process sensory information and motor commands for the opposite side of the body (ex. the left hemisphere controls the right side of the body)
Lateralized
to the side; used to refer to the fact that specific functions may reside primarily in one hemisphere or the other (ex. for the majority individuals, the left hemisphere is most responsible for language)
Callostomy
Surgical procedure in which the corpus callosum is severed (used to control severe epilepsy)
Split-brain patients
a patient who has had most or all of his corpus callosum severed
Visual hemifield
The half of visual space (what we see) on one side of fixation (where we are looking); the left hemisphere is responsible for the right visual hemifield, and the right hemisphere is responsible for the left visual hemifield
Myelin
Fatty tissue, produced by glial cells that insulates the axons of the neurons; myelin is necessary for normal conduction of electrical impulses among neurons
Converging evidence
Similar findings reported from multiple studies using different methods
Phrenology
A now-discredited field of brain study, popular in the first half of the 19th century that correlated bumps and indentations of the skull w specific functions of the brain
Ablate
Surgical removal of brain tissue
Case Studies
A thorough study of a patient (or a few patients) w naturally occurring lesions
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
A neuroscience technique whereby a brief magnetic pulse is applied to the head that temporarily induces a weak electrical current that interferes w ongoing activity
Temporal resolution
a term that refers tohow small a unit of time can be measured; high teporal resolution means capable fo resolving very small units of time; in neuroscience it describes how precisely in time a process can be measured in the brain
Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS)
a neuroscience technique that passes mild electrical current directly through a brain area by placing small electrodes on the skull
Positron Emission tomography (PET)
A neuroimaging technique that measure brain activity by detecting the presence of a radioactive substance in the brain that is initially injected into the bloodstream and then pulled in by active brain tissue - Records flow in the brain
disadvantages - invasive and rendering poor spatial resolution
Diffuse optical imaging (DOI)
A neuroimaging technique that infers brain activity by measuring changes in light as it is passed through the skull ands urface of the brain
When DOI is set up to detect changes in blood oxygen levels, the temporal resolution is low and comparable to PET or fMRI
When DOI is set up to directly detect active neurons, it has high spatial and temporal resolution
