Viticulture Flashcards
Portion of the vine that includes leaves, branches, and fruit
Canopy
The vine’s branches, while they are young and pliable
Canes
Inserting an unrooted cutting into the trunk of an existing vine
Field Grafting
Vines begin to decline at this age
20 (twenty years)
Ideal latitudes for commercial viticulture
30 to 50 degrees
Minimum temperature required to begin the emergence of new greenery in the spring
50F/10C
Sap flowing upward from the trunk out to the canes (before the emergence of new greenery)
Weeping
At the beginning of the growth cycle of the vine – tiny shoots emerge
Bud Break
Transition from flower to berry
Fruit set (Berry set)
Condition in which many flowers do not develop into grapes
Coulure (Shatter)
Abnormality resulting in many small, seedless berries in the grape bunches
Millerandage
The beginning of ripening
Veraison
Typical time period from bud break to harvest
140 to 160 days
Process by which the vine produces sugar
Photosynthesis
Process by which the vine uses energy
Respiration
Process in which water evaporates through openings in the vine’s leaves
Transpiration
Process by which materials are moved from one area of the plant to another
Translocation
French term for the combined natural factors of a vineyard site
Terroir
Bacterial disease spread via glassy winged sharpshooter
Pierce’s Disease
Fungal disease also known as oidium
Powdery Mildew
Fungal disease also known as peronospora
Downy Mildew
Root-eating louse of great threats to vineyards
Phylloxera
Vine-training system that does not use supports nor trellises
Head training (Bush training)
Cane-prune vine-training system that uses one cane from each vine
Single Guyot
Vine-training system that guides vines up a tall support
Pergola
Spur-pruned vine-training system where the branches are spread out from the vine along trellis wires
Cordon
VSP
Vertical shoot positioning
How much land do grapevines cover?
19 million acres or 7.7 million ha
How many tons of grapes are produced annually?
70 million
How much of the total grape production of the world goes into wine?
70%
Viticulture vs Winegrowing
Viticulture refers to cultivating grapevines generallyWinegrowing is the terminology when that cultivation is intended for winemaking as opposed to table grapes
Arms
Main branches of the vine
Spur
Shortened stub of a grapevine cane created via pruning
Cane
A one-year-old grapevine branch that will support new growth in the current year
Cordon
1) An arm of branch of a grapevine, from which fruit-producing shoots grow
2) The wire of a trellis on which a vine cordon is trained
Canopy
Upper part of a grapevine during the growing season, comprising most of the leaves, shoots, and fruit
When are grapes said to be rip?
When the pulp is near its maximum sweetness and the seeds are mature
Why is grafting/cloning preferred over cultivation from the seed?
Seed growing is less predictable as you don’t know genetically what traits it holds, and takes a significantly longer time and has a high failure rate
Cloning
Method of grapevine propagation where a healthy grapevine is selected, a short length of young cane is cut, placed in water until it grows roots, and then placed in the vineyard
Field grafting
Process of removing the existing branches of a rootstock, making a small incision in the trunk, and inserting an unrooted cutting from a desirable vine
Benefit of Field Grafting over Cloning?
Grapevine will have access to an already extensive root network
How many years before a grapevine is considered viable and grapes are harvested for wine?
3 years or Third Leaf
How many years before fruit is considered at optimal quality level?
6 years
How many years will a vine produce at this optimal quality level?
10 years or more
Why are the grapes removed from the vine prior to the third year and not harvested?
The grapes are considered substandard, and this allows the vine to focus on trunk and shoot development
Is the term old vines regulated?
No – although generally vines are at least 20 years old
At what temperature does weeping occur?
Over 50F (10C)
Weeping
When sap beigns to flow upward from the trunk and out to the tips of the canes
How long does weeping last?
1-2 days
Bud Break
Emergence of tiny shoots (buds) from the nodes in the vine’s brances
Why is bud break a hazardous time?
The new growth is vulnerable to temperature extremes, and a late frost can do serious damage
This is especially true of cooler climates
When does photosynthesis begin on the vine?
With the development of leaves, up until then the vine relies on carbohydrate stores
Leaf Growth
Formation of leaves as the shoots grow and strengthen; vine transitions to photosynthesis for energy and growth is accelerated
Flowering
Appearance of tiny flowers at intervals along the shoots
How many days after bud break is flowering?
40 to 80 days
What is required for pollination of vinifera vines?
Vinifera are self-pollinating so pollen is blown from one part of the plant to another by a breeze
What does each flower on the vine become?
A grape
What type of weather is ideal during flowering?
Warm, dry weather
Rainy or windy weather can prevent the pollen from reaching its destination resulting in fewer viable grapes
Berry set/Fruit set
Transition from flower to berry
Coulure
(Shatter)
Failure of flowers to become fully developed berries
What sometimes causes millerandage?
bad weather during flowering
How long before grapes reach their full diameter?
around 3 months
How long after grapes reach their full size is veraison achieved?
About a month and a half
Veraison
Beginning of maturation/ripeness of the grape
How does the appearance of a grape change during veraison?
Red grapes begin to take on color
White grapes remain green but become translucent or golden
How long after veraison does harvest occur?
1.5 months to 2 months
When does harvest occur?
When grapes are ripe in terms of both sugar levels and physiological maturity
Physiological maturity
Level of phenolic compounds in the grape, including tannins and other compounds that enhance the color, flavor, and aromas of the resulting wine
_______ takes about the same amount of time each year, while ___________ can be sped up or slowed down by summer weather.
Physiological maturity; Sugar ripeness
How many days is the time period from bud break to harvest?
Between 140 to 160 days although it can be as little as 110 or as many as 200
What happens when the vine goes into dormancy?
Vine drops leaves, withdraws sap from branches and shoots, moving it into the trunk and roots where there is less of a chance of injury from freezing
What happens after dormancy?
Winter Pruning
Photosynthesis
process in which sunlight is used by the chlorophyll-containing green parts of the plant (primarily the leaves) to convert carbon dioxide and water into sugar
What two things does photosynthesis depend on?
Temperature and Sunshine
At what temperatures does photosynthesis slow?
Less than 50F (10C)
Greater than 95F (35C)
What are the conditions for ultimate sugar production?
Sunny days with temperatures between 70F and 85F (20-30C)
Ideal Conditions for Photosynthesis
Warm days Long days Clear days Minimal Shading Southern aspect (or Northern aspect in the Southern Hemisphere)
Why are long days an ideal condition for Photosynthesis?
As photosynthesis can only occur when the sun is shining, the more hours of daylight the more sunlight produced
What places have longer days during the summertime?
Those further from the equator
How do cloudy/foggy days affect photosynthesis?
As they block the sunlight, sugar production is reduced
Are leaves not in direct sunlight able to perform photosynthesis?
No, which is why minimal shading is beneficial
Why is the aspect of the vineyard important in regions far from the equator?
The suns rays arrive at a lower angle
Why is a Southern aspect beneficial?
It positions the vineyard to face the sun
Respiration
process by which the plant breaks down sugar and related carbohydrates, releasing their energy for use by the plant for activities such as root and leaf growth
During veraison and when sugar is unavailable what does the vine metabolize for energy?
Malic Acid (as well as trace amounts of other compounds)
What happens if the vine consumes too much of the malic acid?
the wine’s flavor may be affected or other problems may occur
What is the rate of respiration affected by?
Temperature
For every _____ increase in temperature, the rate of respiration ______.
18F; Doubles
Why are cool nights beneficial during the grower season?
The warmer it is the faster the vine will use acid for energy, cooler nights minimize the loss of acid during a time when photosynthesis is not taking place.
What are the best conditions for producing grapes that are rich in sugar and still maintain a significant amount of natural acidity?
Warm, not hot cloudless days and cool nights in a well-groomed vineyard that slopes downward facing the sun
Transpiration
Process by which water evaporates through the openings on the underside of the leaves
Stomata
Openings on the underside of the leaves
Transpiration is to plants what ______ is to animals?
Perspiration; Transpiration serves to cool the vine
At what conditions is transpiration the highest?
Sunny, hot, windy, and dry conditions
At what conditions is transpiration the lowest?
Cloudy, cool, still, and humid conditions
Why is it important that a grapevine have enough water for transpiration?
The stomata will close if there is not enough water to conduct transpiration, and these same openings control the intake of carbon dioxide.
If Transpiration is shutdown, Photosynthesis stops
Translocation
process by which materials are moved from one are of the plant to another
Where are sugars made?
In the leaves
Where are sugars moved to in the vine?
(For Energy) Growing shoot tips, roots, or trunk
(Otherwise) To the grape clusters, or for storage in the woody portions of the trunk and root system for future use
What is the most changeable and uncontrollable of the variables that go into making a wine?
Weather
What is the difference between weather and climate?
Weather is the actual meteorological conditions experienced while climate is the historical average weather of a place
Macroclimate
Climate conditions of the overall region
Mesoclimate
Climate conditions of a specific portion of the region (such as an entire vineyard)
Microclimate
Climate of a small portion of a vineyard, such as a few rows
Canopy Microclimate
Climate within and directly surrounding a single vine’s canopy (or, at most, a small section of a single row)
Different sizes of climate in order from smallest to biggest
Canopy Microclimate
Microclimate
Mesoclimate
Macroclimate
Why are the distinctions between micro and mesoclimate important?
These small differences can account for siginificant differences in the resulting fruit
What does temperature have an effect on?
Sugar acid balance
How many inches of water do vines need annually?
20-30 inches (51-76cm)
Why is rain unwelcome during harvest?
The water swells the berries and dilutes their sugar content
_______ can wipe out an entire crop if it strikes a vineyard after veraison.
Hail
Why is humidity dangerous to a vineyard?
It makes for perfect conditions for the growth of fungus and mold
What can create the ideal conditions for Botrytis cinerea?
Fog
In what climates is fog beneficial?
Hot as they reduce temperature and sunlight in the vineyard
How does wind negatively impact a vineyard?
Interfering with the flowering and pollination process
Putting strain on the vine (which is why windbreaks are used)
How does wind positively effect a vineyard?
Reducing humidity and pest concerns
2 attributes of the best soils
Not very fertile
Able to regulate water supply with good drainage
How is a soil type defined?
The sizes of particles it contains and the composition of those particles
Clay
Very fine particles that fit together so tightly that water has difficulty passing through
Silt
Particles of intermediate size
Sand
Coarse particles with relatively little water retention capability
Gravel
Larger pieces of solid inorganic matter; essentially, inert obstacles that roots must pass around, or sometimes through to reach water and nutrients
Soil types in order from biggest particle size to smallest.
Gravel
Sand
Silt
Clay
Compounds found in soil
Minerals (such as quartz, feldspar, or calcium carbonate) Organic matter (decomposed plant and animal materials)
A ______ latitude (one closer to the equator) translates into a _______ climate.
lower; hotter
What is the benefit of higher latitudes?
Longer summer days and cooler nights
What is the negative of higher latitudes?
Shorter growing season and possibly dangerous frosts and freezes
Benefits of higher altitude vineyards.
Cooler & windier
Less fog
Larger diurnal temperature swings
Sunlight is more intense, encouraging photosynthesis
Pro/Con of hillside vineyards
Pro - Fewer problems with frost
Con - Harder to work if they are steep
Pro/Con of flatter vineyards
Pro - Easily harvested mechanically or otherwise
Con - Can be overly fertile
What can rolling topography create?
A patchwork of low areas that collect too much water and higher areas that are always dry
Where is a southern aspect not always ideal?
In hotter climates
What aspect gets the most sun exposure in the Southern Hemisphere?
North-facing slopes
Water tends to change temperature ________ than soil.
More slowly
As a body of water gets larger it is what?
More resistant to temperature change
Why is proximity to a body of water beneficial to a vineyard?
Less temperature variation as the body of water acts as a moderating influence in that:
Diurnal temperature range is less
Summers are not as hot
Winters are milder
How is proximity to a body of a water detrimental to a vineyard?
They provide a source of humidity which can create morning or evening fogs, greater cloud cover, rain, or fungus-encouraging dampness
Maritime Climate
Strongly influenced by an ocean and have high rainfall and mild temperatures overall
Continental Climates
Found in areas far from oceanic effects, they have hotter summers and colder winters – sometimes extreme in both directions – and they may have less precipitation
Mediterranean Climate
Typically found within the temperate latitudes, are characterized by warm, dry summers, mild, wet winters, and low humidity
What are Mediterranean climate zones associated with?
High-pressure atmospheric cells found over many of the world’s large oceans that pull rain toward the region during the winter while keeping the areas warm and dry during the summer
Marginal Climate
An Area that has such cool temperatures or such a short summer growing season that grapes are just barely able to achieve enough ripeness for harvesting before autumn frosts arrive
What are grapevine diseases caused by?
Viruses
Bacteria
Fungi
How are viral diseases spread?
By propagating infected vine cuttings
How is the spread of viral diseases prevented?
By avoiding introducing them to new vineyard plantings or grafted vines
How are bacterial diseases spread?
By insects and animals that carry the microbes
Pierce’s Disease
Bacteriological contamination of the host vine resulting in premature leaf fall
What spread Pierce’s Disease
Several types of sharpshooter insects, specifically glassy-winged sharpshooters
How do insects impact bacterial diseases?
They can spread them if they feed on a contaminated vine and then a healthy one
How is the spread of a bacterial diseases limited?
Control of the carriers, such as the sharpshooters for Pierce’s Disease
How are fungal diseases spread?
Airborne spores
Where are fungal diseases most problematic?
Warm, humid conditions, which are ideal for the growth and spread of the fungus
How are fungal diseases prevented/combatted?
Sulfur or a commercial fungicide sprayed on the vines
Two of the most damaging fungal diseases
Powdery Mildew
Downy Mildew
Oidium
Powdery Mildew
Peronospora
Downy Mildew
Two alternate names for Botrytis cinerea?
Noble Rot - When Good
Gray Mold - When Bad
When can Botrytis cinerea have a detrimental effect on grapes?
When it is introduced prior to the grapes reaching ripeness
French name for Botrytis
pourriture noble
German name for Botrytis
Edelfaule
What does Botrytis do to the grapes?
It sends its filaments through the skin of the grape to tap into the juice, and extracts water from inside the berries
How does Botrytis positively affect the grapes, and the resulting wine?
By concentrating the grapes’ sugars and flavors and imparting its own aroma, which has been described as being similar to honeysuckle
Best Climatic conditions for Botrytis
Morning fog (humid environment) Afternoon sun (prevents spread of fungus over whole vine)
When was phylloxera transported to Europe?
mid-1800s
What was the early solution to phylloxera?
Interbreeding native American vines and Vitis vinifera to develop hybrids resistant to the louse as native American vines were resistant
What was the ultimate “cure” for phylloxera?
Grafting on native American rootstock which was resistant to phylloxera and didn’t impact the resulting grapes or wine aromas/flavors
How did some wine regions avoid phylloxera?
They were isolated or they had sandy soils which are inhospitable to phylloxera
Nematode
Microscopic roundworm that feeds on the vine’s roots
How do nematodes effect vines?
By feeding on the vine and transmitting viruses
How are nematodes prevented?
Resistant rootstocks
Use of cover crops that are natural biofumigant such as mustard
Why is pruning necessary?
To manage the size and development of the vine
Cane pruning
The grower allows one- or two-year-old shoots (known as canes because they have not yet become woody and bark-covered like older branches) to remain
Each cane is trimmed to leave about six to ten nodes each
Spur pruning
Several canes are left but are trimmed to a length of only a few inches containing just one or two nodes each
Why are the new growths of plants tied to supports?
Help airflow and sunlight to reach the interior of the plant, thereby increasing photosynthesis and preventing the development of fungus
For ease of reaching the fruit at harvest
Big difference between cane and spur pruning
Number of nodes or buds that are left – spur pruning leaves more while cane pruning leaves less
Canopy Management
Techniques that alter the position of the number of shoots and grape clusters
Trellis
Network of stakes, posts, and support wires that position the vine as desired by the grower
What is the purpose of a trellis?
To achieve a balance between the vigor of the vine and the desired yield of grapes per acre
4 Common Training Systems
Head/Bush Training
Guyot
Cordon
Pergola
Head/Bush Training
No trellis is used, and the vine grows like a bush or miniature tree
What type of pruning is usually associated with Head/Bush training?
Spur pruning
Guyot Training
Simple cane-pruned system in which one cane from each vine in a row is trained along a wire, all of them in the same direction, to give maximum separation between grape bunches (single Guyot); Double Guyot involves two canes in opposite directions done this way
Type of pruning associated with Guyot training
Cane Pruning
Cordon Training
Same as Guyot, except spur-pruned. Branch or branches holding the spurs soon become as woody as the vines trunk, making it easy to tell the difference between and established cordon and a Guyot system
Type of pruning associated with Cordon training?
Spur-pruned
Difference between Guyot and Cordon Training
Guyot - Cane pruned
Cordon - Spur pruned
Pergola Training
Overhead vines are trained up a tall support and then allowed to spread out horizontally, with the fruit hanging down.
Occasionally they do so up trees, but more frequently they grow up supports that hold some latticework, providing shade for people or other crops below
What is Vertical Shoot Positioning?
The new year’s canes are trained upward and braced by additional wires, with the grape bunches positioned below the leaves in the fruiting area.
What is the benefit of vertical shoot positioning?
Good air circulation and light exposure, as well as ease of use for mechanical harvesters
What is prohibited throughout much of the old world, but common in the New World?
Irrigation
What determines the optimal time to harvest
Ripeness of grapes Style of wine to be produced Weather Labor availability Economic Considerations
How is sugar measured in the US and most of the New World?
Brix
Most common tools to measure grape sugar?
Refractometer
(more old fashioned) hydrometer
What is the formula for estimating ethanol level in a finished wine? (Brix)
Brix value x .55 (5/9)
For a quick rough estimate – divide the Brix value in half
Measurement system used in France for potential alcohol level
Baume
Formula for measuring Baume
milliliters potential alcohol/100 milliliters of wine
12 Baume = 12% Alcohol
System for measuring alcohol in Germany/Switzerland
Oechsle
Formula for measuring Oeschle
Oechsle = (Density of grape must - 1.0) x 1000
Measurement system in Austria
Klosterneuburger Mostwaage ( KMW)
What does KMW measure?
Exact sugar content of the grape juice by weight
What is organic viticulture?
Grape growing without the use of manufactured fertilizers or pesticides
What is the certifying body for organic viticulture in the United States?
US Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) National Organic Program (NOP)
How many years must a vineyard be practicing organic before it can be certified organic? (In the US)
3 years
What is Integrated Pest Management?
Targeted approach to dealing with pests in a vineyard with the goal to eliminate or control only the insects that are actually present and causing damage, vs blanket treatment
How is IPM accomplished?
By studying each pest individually including its life cycle, host, and predators to find a vulnerability to exploit with the lowest amount of intervention and least effect on the vines/environment
What is Biodynamic Viticulture
Organic viticulture + Metaphysical elements + Few mandated procedures
Who developed the philosophy of biodynamics?
Rudolf Steiner in the early twentieth century
What is the philosophy of biodynamics?
All parts of the universe are interconnected as an ecosystem and that humans have the capacity to tap into the universal energy through meditation and mental practice
What is the guiding factor in biodynamic viticulture?
Planet alignment & Moon Phase
How many special preparations are used in biodynamic viticulture?
9, all thought to endow the organic fertilizer with spiritual energy
Who certifies wineries as biodynamic?
Demeter International
What is Sustainable Viticulture?
Similar to organic/biodynamic but with more of a focus on carbon footprint, water usage, greenhouse gases, and climate change. It allows for less black and white thought with the intent on what’s best long term for the environment and resources of the planet
Name 3 Sustainable programs in the US
Lodi Winegrape Commission’s “Lodi Rules”
Napa Valley Vintners “Napa Green”
New York State “Vine Balance”
Ideal weather conditions for flowering
Warm and dry (rain or wind can hinder fertilization)
Philosophy of viticulture often credited to Rudolf Steiner
Biodynamics
