Fermentation and Still/Sparkling/Fortified Wine Production Flashcards
Breaking the skins of the grapes
Crushing
Separating the grape juice from the skins and other solids
Pressing
Contact between grape skins and juice prior to the start of fermentation
Cold Soak
Grape juice – or a mixture of juice and solids – destined for fermentation
Must
The first – and the finest – juice from the grapes
Free run
Adding sugar prior to fermentation
Chaptalization
French term for juice settling
Debourbage
Number of gallons in a 225-liter barrel
60 (Sixty)
Typical strain of commercial yeast used in winemaking
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Secondary fermentation, initiated by bacteria
Malolactic fermentation
Buttery-scented chemical created via mlf
Diacetyl
Expired yeast cells (in a newly-fermented wine)
Lees
Allowing a newly fermented wine to remain in contact with the expired yeast cells
Sur lie aging
Stirring dead yeast cells and other solid matter in a recently-fermented wine
Batonnage
Clarification via gravity
Racking
Clarification via a substance such as gelatin or bentonite
Fining
Clarification via straining wine through a barrier
Filtration
Clarification via laboratory equipment and accelerated gravity
Centrifuge
Clarification to prevent tartrate crystals
Cold Stabilization
Managing the cap via moving juice from the bottom of the tank and spraying it over the top
Pumping over
Managing the cap by physically pushing the cap down into the fermenting juice
Punching down
The French term for “rack and return”
Delestage
Alternative method of red wine production using whole, uncrushed grapes
Carbonic Maceration
“Bleeding” method used to produce red wines and rose
Saignee
Method used to produce very pale rose, such as those made in Provence
Direct Press
Vineyard mold that “shrivels” grapes for use in sweet wines such as Sauternes
Botrytis cinerea
Stainless steel containers used for fermentation and aging are considered ______ because the vessel itself does not impact the flavor of the wine.
Inert
Clarification via use of an ingredient such as egg whites, gelatin, or bentonite clay
Fining
Type of wine produced using the juice of white grapes that have been allowed some skin contact
Orange wine
The process of breaking open the grape berries and allowing the juice to flow
Crushing
The process of allowing contact between grape skins and grape juice before fermentation starts
Cold Soak
The process of separating the grape juice from the skins and other solids
Pressing
Grape juice, or a mixture of juice and solids, that is destined to be fermented into wine
Must
Considered to be the highest quality juice in the batch
Free Run
Italian term for “Pomace Brandy”
Grappa
Adding sugar to the juice/juice mixture before fermentation
Chaptalization
Typical strain of yeast used for winemaking
Saccharomyces Cerevisiae
Type of fermentation carried out by lactic bacteria
Malolactic fermentation
Type of ester, created by MLF, that smells “buttery”
Diacetyl
Term used for expired yeast cells and other solid matter in a newly fermented wine
Lees
A type of clarification used to prevent the formation of tartrates
Cold Stabilization
Alternative method of red wine fermentation that occurs inside whole, uncrushed grapes
Carbonic Maceration
Method used to produce very pale rose’, such as those made in Provence
Direct Press
The most highly regarded method of sparkling wine production
Methode Champenoise (Traditional Method)
French term for a riddling rack
Pupitre
Another term for Prestige sparkling wines, literally translated to “cream of the crop”
Tete de Cuvee
Sparkling wine made using only white grapes
Blanc de Blancs
Sparkling wine made using only red grapes
Blanc de Noirs
French term for “juice settling”
Debourbage
Mixture of base wine, sugar, and yeast that is added to induce the second fermentation in sparkling wine
Liqueur de tirage
Term used for the decomposition of yeast cells during sur lie aging
Autolysis
French term for riddling
Remuage
Small amount of wine (and sometimes sugar) used to replace the volume lost in the disgorging of Champagne
Dosage
Alternative name for the “tank method” of sparkling wine production
Charmat
Cuve Close
Method used to produce Moscato d’Asti
Partial Fermentation
Asti Method
Process of halting fermentation by adding high-alcohol spirits while the must still has a significant amount of sugar
Mutage
Two main styles of Sherry
Fino
Oloroso
Complex series of barrels used for aging Sherry
Solera System
Type of aging that occurs in a Sherry that is aged with flor yeast
Biological aging
Type of aging that occurs in Sherry that is aged without the presence of flor yeast
Oxidative aging
Lightly fortified sweet wines produced throughout the South of France
Vin doux Naturel
French term for the blending stage of sparkling wine production
Assemblage
Formula added to base wine in order to induce second fermentation (in bottle)
Liqueur de tirage
Removal of the dead yeast cells in a bottle of Champagne
Degorgement (Disgorging)
Small addition of wine (and perhaps sugar) added at the end of Champagne production
Dosage
Liqueur d’expedition
Sweetness styles of Champagne, in order from driest to sweetest
Brut nature (Sans dosage) Extra brut Brut Extra dry Sec Demi-sec Doux
Traditional production method used to produce France’s sparkling Limoux
Ancestral Method
Method Ancestrale
Rhone Valley sparkling wine produced using an ancient method
Clairette de Die
Methode Dioise Ancestral
The “layers” in a solera system
Criaderas
“nurseries”
Type of blending system used in a solera
Fractional blending (refers to the fact that the barrels are never completely emptied)
Level of alcohol (after fortification) ideal for a wine that will undergo biological aging
15% to 15.5% abv (no higher)
Country of production:
Madeira
Portugal
Country of production:
Commandaria
Cyprus
Country of production:
Marsala
Italy
Region of production:
Banyuls
Roussillon
French term for wine produced by the fortification of grape must
Mistelle
Spanish term for wine produced by the fortification of grape must
Mistela (no fermentation)
Vino de licor (small amount of fermentation allowed)
Fortified grape must used to sweeten Marsala
Sifone
EU term for all fortified wines
Vins de liqueurs
Vin de liqueur
Why is it important that fermentation begin as soon after harvest as possible?
Once the grapes are picked, they immediately start to degrade, and oxidation begins to set in.
What happens to grapes if fermentation is not started immediately?
Unbroken grapes would start to become raisins Broken grapes (and their juice) would quickly begin to ferment in unpredictable ways, potentially ending up as vinegar
How do winemakers minimize the unwanted effects in the interim between harvest and fermentation?
Grapes are kept cool and covered and sulfur may be used as a preservative
What is the pre-fermentation period broadly referred to as?
Crush; It encompasses not only the actual crushing but everything that gets the juice ready for the initiation of fermentation
What is removed on the sorting table?
Leaves, underripe bunches, damaged fruit, and any other debris
What does the crusher-destemmer machine designed to do?
Break open the berries and release their juice; at the same time the grapes are separated from the stem structure of the bunch, which is then discarded
What is left after using the crusher-destemmer machine?
A lot of liquid containing skins and seeds but no stems
What is included in whole cluster pressing?
Stems
How is crushing different from pressing?
In crushing the skins of the grapes are broken and juice is allowed to flow, but no pressure is applied.
Why must crushing be done gently?
Too much force can cause the release of tannins from the skins and seeds, the astringency and bitterness of which are undesirable characteristics in white wine
What is usually minimized in white wine production?
Contact between the skins and the juice
What is the maximum time a cold soak usually takes place for white wines?
24 hours
Why is free run juice considered the highest quality?
Highest in sugar
Low in tannin
What style of press are most modern presses?
Bladder presses
Device that essentially inflates with air or water to squeeze the grapes
Bladder press
Why are bladder presses beneficial over the more traditional style?
More usable liquid can be extracted while avoiding the negative consequences of too much pressure
Pomace
Cake of dry, compressed skins and pips (seeds) that remains after the final pressing
What is done with the pomace after pressing?
It is often composted or plowed back into the vineyard to improve soil structure.
Can also be used to make pomace brandies such as Marc/Grappa
Grape juice that is destined for fermentation
Must
How is low acidity combatted in regards to must adjustments?
Acidification
What type of acid is typically used in acidification?
Tartaric Acid
How does acidification affect the flavor of the wine?
Should not affect the flavor significantly apart from sharpening the acidic tang and bringing the wine into balance
What is used to accomplish de-acidification?
Potassium or Calcium Bicarbonate
Are chaptalized wines sweet?
No, all of the added sugar, along with the original content of the must, will be fermented into alcohol
2 other methods of raising or lowering the concentration of sugar acid in the must?
Diluting with water
Blending with grape juice or concentrate
Of the New World/Old World – where are you more likely to find wines that have must adjustments?
New World; many of the procedures are not permitted in the Old World
Why is juice settling, or debourbage, done?
To let a must adjustment fully integrate with the juice
To wait for some of the solids to settle out of a solution so there will be less sediment after fermentation
To have more time to process more grapes that will go into the same batch
About how many chemical reactions take place during fermentation?
30; each is catalyzed (brought about) by a specific enzyme in the yeast
Enzyme
Organic substance capable of causing a chemical change
Chemical name for sugar
C6H12O6
Chemical name for ethyl alcohol
C2H5OH
Chemical formula for fermentation
C6H12O6 + yeast –> 2(C2H5OH) + 2(CO2) + heat
Where does the carbon dioxide go that is created during fermentation?
It dissolves into the air
What percentage of grape sugars are fully converted into ethanol and CO2 before fermentation stops?
About 90%
What happens to the remaining sugars at the completion of fermentation?
Broken down into various transitional products such as: Glycerol Succinic Acid Acetic Acid Lactic Acid Acetaldehyde Ethyl Acetate Other Alcohols such as Methanol
How many gallons in a 225 liter barrel?
60
Why are stainless steel tanks beneficial?
Do not impact flavors of the wine
Airtight
Easy to Clean
Relatively easy temperature control
What do oak barrels add to a white wine?
Complexity
Oak Flavors
Downplay Fruit Aromas
Aside from wood and stainless steel – what is another type of fermentation vessel?
Concrete
Why is it often more difficult to prevent fermentation from beginning than it is to make it begin?
There are ambient yeasts in the winery, and as soon as the sugar-rich juice is released from the grapes, yeast cells will jump in and begin feasting and multiplying.
Why would a winemaker want to prevent fermentation?
It could be happening too soon or with unwanted strains of yeast that make poor wine by either producing strange flavors and aromas or failing to finish the job of converting the sugar to alcohol
How is premature fermentation stopped?
Addition of sulfur which is toxic to yeast as well as to other fungi and bacteria
Refrigeration of must which slows or stops most biological activity
Why is natural fermentation more common in the Old World than in the New World?
The regions have been making wine for a long time, and natural selection may have made “good” yeast dominant, making indigenous yeast fermentation possible. The New World generally does not trust their wine to the native yeast population.
What is the alternative to natural fermentation?
Inoculation
Inoculation
Addition of a significant amount of commercially grown yeast.
How does inoculation combat natural fermentation?
The cultured yeast gets the fermentation off to a fast start and gives the cultured yeast a substantial advantage over any wild yeast that may be present in the must. The cultivated yeast will rapidly dominate the yeast population.
Why might different strains of yeast be chosen for winemaking?
To add desirable flavors or aromas to the wine, to speed up or slow down the fermentation process, or to achieve a certain level of alcoholic
Simply put, the specific yeast strain chosen can have a considerable effect on the overall style of the finished wine.
What is a critical thing to control during fermentation?
Temperature
What temperature is ideal during fermentation of white wines?
50 to 60F to retain delicate fruit and floral aromas
What happens at temperatures over 50 to 60F during fermentation?
Yeast cells become increasingly active, converting the sugar into alcohol at a faster pace and further raising the temperature.
Fresh fruit and floral essences of white grapes can disappear, giving the wine a more neutral character or even introducing “cooked fruit” aromas more akin to apple sauce than fresh apples
What happens if fermentation gets out of control and the liquid goes much above 100F?
Yeast will likely die, and fermentation will stop prematurely
This is a common cause of “stuck fermentation” which is very difficult to reverse
How long does fermentation take?
Between several days to several weeks
Aside from depletion of sugar or elevated temperature, what may cause fermentation to stop?
When the alcohol content reaches 14%, at which point the yeast may no longer be able to survive leaving a small amount of residual sugar
The winemaker forcefully stopping it to retain residual sugar
Average alcohol content of white wines
12% to 14% although they can go as low as 7%
Is malolactic fermentation a type of fermentation?
No, it is a conversion process that can take place simultaneously with the primary (alcoholic) fermentation or after the primary fermentation is complete
What happens during malolactic fermentation?
A particular strain of lactic acid bacteria decomposes the sharp malic acid in the wine and converts it ot lactic acid
How do the characteristics of a wine change with malolactic fermentation?
The tart, green apple characteristics of malic acid are replaced by the milder and creamier characteristics of lactic acid
Why is malolactic fermentation often prevented?
Most white wines rely on fragrant aromas, light body, and crisp acidity which are mitigated by MLF
Grape variety that benefits from MLF?
Chardonnay
How is MLF prevented?
It generally won’t start unless utilizing a fermentation or storage barrel that previously housed the bacteria, but sulfur dioxide can also be utilized
Racking
Method of clarification to quickly remove lees from a wine
How does sur lie aging affect a wine?
Dead yeast cells begin to decompose, potentially imparting a yeasty aroma, creamy texture, and increased to complexity to the wine
How can sur lie aging be amplified?
Lees stirring or battonage
Battonage
Stirring lees sediment back up into the liquid
Why might sulfur be added at the conclusion of fermentation?
To decrease the chance of microbial spoilage or browning in the finished wine
Why is sulfur addition particularly important in wines with residual sugar?
A secondary fermentation could begin
Four ways to clarify a wine
Racking
Fining
Filtering
Centrifuge
Racking
Most basic clarification procedure that uses the action of gravity by allowing the suspended matter to settle to the bottom of the fermentation vessel. The wine is carefully drawn off the sediment and moved into a fresh container. Several rackings may be necessary.
Why do many winemakers opt for more clarification than just racking?
Microscopic particles, such as chains of tannins or proteins, will inevitably remain in the wine and may make the wine look dull or even coalesce together into larger, visible particles
Fining
Technique in which material that has an affinity for certain particulates is stirred into the wine. The fining agent falls through the wine, attracting and binding with the unwanted materials as it settles to the bottom.
How are the fining agent and sediment separated from the wine?
Fining
Examples of fining materials
Gelatin
Egg White
Bentonite Clay
What do Gelatin and Egg White bond to as a fining agent?
Excessive Tannin
What does Bentonite Clay bond to as a fining agent?
Proteins
Filtering
Process of straining the wine through a barrier with very fine openings in order to trap any particulates over a certain size.
What is possible with modern technology in regards to filtering?
Filters can eliminate contaminants as small as bacteria (sterile filtering)
What is the benefit of sterile filtering?
All microbes (yeast and bacteria) that could cause spoilage later can be removed
Why must filtering be carefully monitored?
Risk of reducing some desirable flavor molecules along with the unwanted particles
Centrifuge
Modern piece of laboratory equipment that uses accelerated gravity to separate the wine from the heavier solids
Why might winemakers prefer to leave their wine unfined and unfiltered?
It can lead to greater depth of flavor, complexity and texture
What does barrel aging wine allow for?
Slow oxidation that changes the wine and adds complexity
How does new oak affect a wine?
Can add touches of vanilla, oak, wood, coconut, toast, or other aromas
What white grape varieties benefit from oak aging?
Chardonnay
Sauvignon Blanc
Blending
Combination of different vats of wine from different vineyards, grape varieties, vintages, or even winemakers to produce the final wine
Why is blending important in branded wines?
They need to re-create the desired flavor profile of the brand year after year
Why is blending done?
To develop complexity or balance, or to create a particular style of finished wine
Why is Cold Stabilization done in white wines?
White wines, particularly those that are crisp and tart, tend to be quite high in tartaric acid which can crystalize but the acid is a major component of the wine and should not/cannot be filtered out in the clarification process
Are tartrates harmful?
No, but many consumers assume they are a defect
What is the process of cold stabilization?
Chilling the wine to around 25F (-4C), holding the wine at this temperature for one to three weeks, and racking the wine off of the precipitates
Generally, why is red wine produced differently than white wine?
To capture the flavor and color available in the skins of red grapes
Why is crushing required for red grapes but not always for white grapes?
Because their skins are used during the fermentation process; the grapes are crushed in order to break the stems, free the juice, and allow the yeast to begin working
Why might the stems be added back to a red wine?
To provide an additional source of tannin, flavor, and complexity
What is an option with must adjustment in red wines that is not an option in white wines?
Tannin adjustment
How is tannin adjustment accomplished?
By leaving the stems in the must or adding tannin powder
What is the most important difference between white and red winemaking?
Maceration
Why is maceration important?
Necessary to extract phenolics such as color, tannin, and flavor components from the skins of the red grapes
Where are the majority of the color compounds of red wine grapes found?
In the skins; the juice is just as colorless as that of white grapes
Maceration
Period of contact between the grape skins and the fermenting grape juice where the red and blue pigments are extracted out of the skins and move into the darkening juice, along with tannins and flavor constituents
How long does maceration last?
Form a few days to a few weeks or even longer
What does the length of maceration depend on?
Intended style of wine
Grape Variety
What do longer periods of maceration produce?
Highly “extracted” wines that are deeply colored, highly, tannic, bursting with flavor, and generally in need of time in the bottle to mature
What do shorter periods of maceration produce?
Softer, more accessible wines that are often ready for consumption upon release
Examples of grape varieties that are easily extracted during maceration
Cabernet Sauvignon
Syrah
Examples of grape varieties that are not easily extracted during maceration and may require more time to extract sufficient color
Nebbiolo
Pinot Noir
What is done if a winemaker chooses to do maceration prior to the start of fermentation?
Cold Soak
Cold Soak
Process of chilling the must to below 55F (13C) in order to postpone fermentation while still macerating
How does a cold soak differ from other maceration periods?
The grape solids are macerating in cold grape juice, a large percentage of which is water, as opposed to macerating in fermenting grape juice which contains a percentage of alcohol and is, therefore, a more effective solvent
What allows the winemaker to control the level of phenolics that are extracted from the grape skins during production?
Cold Soak
Why is it necessary for the contact between skins and must to be maintained throughout the fermentation?
For the appropriate amount of phenolics to be extracted from the skins
Cap
Dense and compact mass formed by the carbon dioxide that is continuously produced during fermentation pushing the grape solids to the top of the fermentation vessel
Cap management
Breaking up the cap and reintegrating the skins into the liquid, allowing for optimal extraction
Why is cap management necessary?
Because the proper extraction of phenolics requires the grape skins to be in the liquid, not floating on top of it
What is a danger of not conducting cap management?
Acetobacter may begin to grow on the cap, which may cause the wine to develop excess acetic acid. Trapped carbon dioxide might even cause the cap to burst
Four Most Common Methods of Cap Management
Punch Down
Pump Over
Rack and Return
Rotofermentation
Punch Down
Physically pushing the cap down into the juice
Pump Over
Pumping juice from the bottom of the tank and spraying it over the top of the cap
French term for Pump Over
Remontage
Rack and Return
Draining the fermenting juice into a separate holding tank before it is returned to the original tank by spraying it over the spraying it over the now sunken cap
What does Rack and Return result in compared to a standard Pump Over?
More aeration
French term for Rack and Return
Delestage
Rotofermentation
Agitating the fermenting must in a specialized fermentation vessel that either rotates on its own or contains an inner paddle that mixes the fermenting must
Why does Rotofermentation eliminate the need for Punch Down or Pump Over?
The contents are mixed at regular intervals (usually controlled by a computer)
Are white wine fermentations usually conducted at higher temperatures than red wines?
No; Red wine is usually conducted at a higher temperature
Why is red wine fermentation conducted at a higher temperature?
Partially because the light floral and fruit aromas emphasized by a cool fermentation are less important in most red wines. Also warmer fermentation allows for increased extraction of phenolics, which creates a good foundation for robust, age-worthy reds
At higher fermentation temperatures, how long does it take to covert all sugars into alcohol?
Within a week
In what circumstance might a winemaker opt to remove the skins from the fermenting wine prior to the completion of fermentation?
In extremely tannic grapes
Typically, how long do the skins remain in contact with the fermenting juice?
Until the wine is fermented to dryness and the cap loses its buoyant carbon dioxide support
Extended Maceration
Allowing the skins to remain in contact with the wine for several days to several weeks, or even longer, after the fermentation is complete
Why might Extended Maceration be done?
When the fullest extraction of phenolics is desired
Is malolactic fermentation more common with red wines or white wines?
Red wines
Why is malolactic fermentation more common in reds?
Because in most reds, high acidity is unnecessary and possibly even undesirable, making the added complexity introduced by malolactic fermentation a plus?
What can lead to a more microbially stable wine?
Malolactic fermentation because it reduces the amount of malic acid available for bacteria that can cause spoilage to attack
What is the composition of the solids that build up in the bottom of the tank prior to pressing?
Former Cap
Dead Yeast Cells
Other Precipitated Sediment
When is pressing done?
When it is determined that the wine has absorbed enough phenolics from the solids
Pressing
Process of racking off the free run wine into a different tank or directly into barrels and then pressing the remaining solids to release any remaining wine
What is true about press wines?
They’re rich in tannin and color
What is press wine used for?
To add to free run juice or to be used in a separate blend
What is less frequently done in red wines than in white wines?
Clarification as some of the fining/filtering will take out some of the phenolics as well
What wines particularly benefit from oak aging?
Those high in tannin
How does oak aging help with tannin?
The slow infusion of oxygen that seeps through the wood and into the wine helps the tanning molecules combine with each other through polymerization
What is the difference in perception between polymerized tannins and grape tannins?
Long polymerized tannins feel softer and richer while grape tannins are sharper and harder
How do new barrels affect a wine?
Significant flavor is added
After how many years have most of the flavor components leached out of a barrel?
4 years
Do larger or smaller barrels have more of an effect on the wine?
Smaller, the smaller the barrel the more oak flavor
What are the two principal sources for oak barrels?
France
United States
Contrast French and American Oak.
French is more subtle and refined in flavor while American is more assertive and less expensive
Does American oak or French oak have a tighter grain?
French
Three other places that have recently become more prevalent for oak barrel production
Baltic States
Canada
Russia
How are barrels made?
By hand over an open fire, which softens the wood enough to bend it into shape
What affects the flavors imparted by the barrel?
Amount of “toast” or charring
How much does a new French oak barrel cost?
$1300
What are inexpensive alternatives to oak barrels?
Oak chips or planks
What wines utilize oak chips or planks?
Inexpensive wines that would benefit from oak flavor but cannot support the cost of the barrels; although the effect is not quite the same without the oxidation that the barrel enables
Micro-oxygenation
Process that involves bubbling a tiny amount of oxygen into the wine in an attempt to simulate the oxidization effects of barrel aging
Carbonic maceration
Alternative method of red winemaking involving an enzymatic fermentation that requires neither yeast or bacteria
What is required for carbonic maceration?
Whole, unbroken grapes in the absence of oxygen
What is the process for carbonic maceration?
Grapes are carefully placed in an enclosed fermentation vessel and blanketed with carbonic dioxide. In this environment, enzymes in the grapes themselves will begin to break down the grape sugars and create some alcohol within the berries, along with other compounds that may affect wine flavor.
Why is it rare for a wine to be 100% carbonic maceration?
Because any breakage in the grapes will lead to yeast being introduced to the grapes. So carbonic maceration is often used in the initial stages before a transition to normal alcoholic fermentation.
What type of wines result from carbonic maceration?
Red wines that are low in tannin, brightly colored, and showing aromas and flavors of tropical fruits and red berries
Where is carbonic maceration most known to be utilized?
Beaujolais, especially in Beaujolais Nouveau
What does the amount of color in rose wines depend on?
Amount of time the juice remains in contact with the grape skins
What is the most common method for making rose wines?
By limiting the contact time between the skins and juice so that only a small degree of color is extracted from the grape skins into the wine
Saignee method
For rose production, grapes are crushed, perhaps destemmed, and vatted for a length of time, typically from 2 to 20 hours. Then a portion of the juice is run (or bled) off to make rose
What happens to the remaining wine after some is bled off for rose?
It remains vatted with the skins to become a red wine; leading to a concentrated red in addition to the rose wine that was produced
Where is the direct press method of rose well known?
Provence
Direct Press
Grapes, either destemmed or whole cluster, are pressed immediately after harvest, resulting in pale pink juice, which is then fermented
What are wines made through the direct press method often called?
Vin Gris
Are there requirements for a wine to be labeled vin gris?
No, so it is not uncommon to see it on a bottling that was produced in a method other than direct press
Is the fermentation for roses more similar to reds or whites?
whites; it is fermented at a low temperature, clarified, possibly blended, and bottled
What processes for white wines are rare for roses?
Malolactic fermentation
Lees stirring
Oak aging
General profile of Rose
Fruity and refreshing with medium to high rose
Blush
Roses that are slightly sweet
White (in Rose)
Slightly sweet roses made from a single variety i.e. White Zinfandel
Rose in Spanish
Rosado
Rose in Italian
Rosato
Rose in German
Weissherbst
What is the idea behind the Old World style of winemaking?
Terroir is paramount and grape growers and winemakers should strive to have the grapes and wines reflect their physical environment as closely as possible.
What is the idea behind the New World style of winemaking?
Acknowledging that terroir plays a very important role, but argues that grapes are simply raw materials to be molded, insofar as possible, into a desired form by human artistry and technology
Flying winemakers
As winemaking is mostly within a 3 to 4 month time frame, these winemakers are able to travel between the Northern and Southern Hemisphere to make wine twice a year
Most famous regions for Botrytis wines
Sauternes within Bordeaux
Loire Valley
2 Grape varieties that have an affinity for Botrytis
Semillon
Chenin Blanc
(due to their thin skins)
What does Botrytis add to the aromas of a wine?
Honeysuckle and Apricot
Ways to make a sweet wine
Botrytis Afflicted
Late Harvest
Dried Grapes
Frozen Grapes
Late Harvest Wine
Wine produced from grapes that have been left on the vine past the optimal ripeness point that have lost some water and gained sugar
What is the downside of the late harvest style of sweet wines?
The grapes lose acidity as they ripen so it works best in cool climates or with grapes that have naturally high acidity
2 grapes that are utilized for Late Harvest wines
Riesling
Chenin Blanc
What happens to grapes as they are dried?
They retain sugar but lose water
Are dried grapes always used to produce sweet wines?
No; they can also be made into high alcohol wines
Italian terms for the drying process
Passito (if sweet)
appassimento (if dry)
Places that make frozen sweet wines
Germany
Canada
Grapes commonly frozen for sweet wine production
Riesling
Gewurztraminer
Chenin Blanc
Cold-Hardy Hybrids
Wine made from frozen grapes
Eiswein (Icewine)
Are icewines always made from white grapes?
No, red versions are also produced
Grape used in red icewines
Cabernet Franc
Cryoextraction
Mechanical freezing process where late-harvest grapes are frozen post-harvest in a commercial freezer
Can wines made via cryoextraction be labeled as ice wines?
No
Is Chaptalization a way to increase the sweetness of a wine?
No
In what circumstances is chaptalization allowed?
Where the grapes are unable to ripen sufficiently, and then only to the degree necessary to bring the alcohol up to the minimum standard, not create a sweet wine
Why is fermentation harder on a sweet wine?
The yeast may struggle to stay alive due to the high sugar content
Procedures that may be utilized in sweet wine production
Refrigeration
Adding Sweetness
Fortification
Refrigeration
Process of chilling the must during fermentation which stops yeast activity while there is still sugar left
What is necessary if a wine is made sweet through refrigeration?
Sterile filtration or sulfur additions to prevent fermentation beginning after bottling as the yeast is not killed during refrigeration
What is utilized to add sweetness to a wine?
Sugar
Grape Concentrate
Unfermented Juice (Rectified Grape Must)
Fortification
Addition of distilled spirits to a wine
What does fortification do to a sweet wine?
Raises the alcohol level high enough to kill the yeast before the sugar is consumed
2 other ways to stop fermentation
Killing the yeast via pasteurization
Adding large amounts of sulfur
What is required to use the term “Organic Wine”?
Wines that are made from a minimum of 95% certified organic grapes and that do not use anything in the winemaking process that is defined as “prohibited”
What is required to use the term 100% Organic?
For a wine to meet the organic criteria and be made solely using certified organic grapes
What is the most significant restriction in organic winemaking?
Sulfur restriction
What is the single most effective substance for controlling the bacteria and fungi that threaten to spoil a wine?
Sulfur
Can a wine labeled organic use sulfur?
No; instead the wine can be labeled as “Made with organic grapes” as long as the wine was sourced from 100% certified organic grapes and the sulfur dioxide additions are less than 100 ppm
EU terms for wines that are organic
Organic Wine
Vin Biologique
Requirements to be labeled Vin Biologique or Organic Wine in the EU
30% to 50% less added sulfur than nonorganic wines
No additives are permitted
Winemaking process must be fully traceable
What is biodynamic wine production guided by?
minimal manipulation and low impact on the envionment
Is sulfur use allowed in a biodynamic wine?
Yes, but it must be kept to a minimum
Are Organic or Biodynamic wines subject to more regulations?
Organic, especially as the term biodynamic is trademarked and controlled by a private organization (Demeter International) rather than by government regulators
Requirements for Kosher wines
Certified by Jewish authorities
From the time the grapes arrive at the winery, the materials may only be handled by observant male Orthodox Jews under the supervision of a rabbi, using equipment that is used for no other purpose
Animal-based products such as gelatin and egg whites for fining may not be used
What is different about Mevushal wine versus regular Kosher wine?
Mevushal wine may be handled by anyone while Kosher wines must remain untouched by non-Jews or nonobservant Jews
Mevushal wine is also subjected to high heat via flash-pasteurization, either as a must or as wine, before leaving the vineyard
Where did orange wines originate?
Republic of Georgia, approximately 5000 years ago
How are orange wines produced?
The juice from white grapes spends a significant amount of time macerating with the grape skins in order to extract tannin and color and to achieve some oxidative resistance
How long does maceration typically last in orange wines?
As little as 3 days or as long as several weeks or months
What happens to the carbon dioxide produced during sparkling wine production?
The pressure builds up, and the carbon dioxide is absorbed into the wine. If handled correctly, the carbon dioxide will remain until it creates bubbles when the wine is served
How were sparkling wines developed?
Accidentally; Incompletely fermented wines were chilled during winner, and refermented in the spring
Other name for Methode Ancestral?
Methode Rurale
What is the most famous and highly regarded way to produce sparkling wine?
The Traditional Method
Other names for the Traditional Method?
Classic Method Methode Champenoise (less used)
What is the process of the Traditional Method?
Base Wine Produced
Adding Sugar & Yeast
Second Fermentation in a Sealed Bottle
Can a wine be labeled Champagne if it is outside of the Champagne region of France?
Yes and No; Mostly no, although in the United States certain wines may be labeled as champagne as long as a place-name is appended, such as “California Champagne”
Labels submitted after what date cannot use the term Champagne in the United States
March 10, 2006
3 main grape varieties of Champagne
Chardonnay
Pinot Noir
Meunier (Pinot Meunier)
Why are Chardonnay, Pinot Noir, and Meunier the main grapes of Champagne?
Because they worked well for the cool climate of the region and for the high-acid, moderate alcohol, yeast-driven style of Champagne
Sparkling grape for France’s Loire Valley
Chenin Blanc
Sparkling grape for Germany
Riesling
Sparkling grapes for Spain
Xarel-lo
Macabeo
Parellada
Sparkling grapes for Italy
Muscat (Moscato)
Brachetto
Glera (Prosecco)
Most common sparkling grapes in the New World
Chardonnay
Pinot Noir
Sparkling grape of Australia
Shiraz
4 Well known wines for Methode Traditionelle
Champagne
Cava
Franciacorta
Cremants
What style of still wine is produced for sparkling wines?
dry, still, high-acid, and low-alcohol
How long does the second fermentation take in the bottle?
About 30 days
3 Ways of labeling Methode Traditionelle wines in the United States
Traditional Method
Classic Method
Fermented in this Bottle
What is true about the harvest of grapes for sparkling wines?
Conducted early for high acid/low sugar
Gentle handling to prevent bitter/harsh from skins
Careful handling minimize color transfer from red grapes
What type of pressing is normal for sparkling wines?
Whole Cluster Pressing; it keeps the juice inside the skins until the last moment and then rapidly, and with minimal force, squeezing the juice out and separating it from skins and seeds
What does the traditional Champagne press look like?
Wide, flat basket press
Why is a bladder-type press more common both in Champagne and elsewhere?
Soft and flexible surface of the inflatable bladder is less likely to break the skins’ cellular structure and release bitter phenolics than are older mechanical presses
Which of the pressings is the finest quality?
The first press; the wines of the highest quality will be made for this
French term for the juice from the first press
Cuvee
French term for the juice from the second press
Taille
French term for the juice from the third press
Rebeche
Are the juices from all three pressings combined?
No, the first and second may be combined or used for different wines, but the third is never incorporated
Why is the rebeche or third pressing not utilized in sparkling production?
Inevitably picks up more bitter components from the seeds and skins and are generally unsuitable for fine sparkling wine.
What is the rebeche or third pressing utilized for?
Still wine, fortified wines, spirits, vinegar, or other products
French term for juice settling
Debourbage
French term for Disgorging, disgorgement
Degorgement
French term for riddling rack
Pupitre
French term for Riddling
Remuage
French term for still wine from earlier vintages used in blending
Reserve
French term for transfer between bottles
Transversage
Assemblage
Blending stage where different pressings, different grape varieties, different vineyards, and reserve wines from previous vintages are combined
French term for blend
Cuvee
Prestige/Tete de Cuvee
Brand’s very best wine, made from only the earliest part of the first pressing of the most exceptional fruit and treated with extraordinary care
Are Tete de Cuvee wines typically non vintage dated?
No, they are usually a vintage wine that is sold in uniquely shaped or decorative bottles at high prices
Vintage (bottling)
Wines are produced from a cuvee of base wines made from grapes all harvested in the same year
Goal of a vintage champagne
To highlight the quality and unique characteristics brought on by the weather and conditions of that particular year
Nonvintage (bottling)
Wines are produced from a cuvee that contains wines from more than one years harvest
Goal of nonvintage champange
To construct a consistent flavor profile or “house style” for which the brand has become known; least expensive and most sold
Blanc de Blanc
Cuvee made from only white grapes; in the New World and Champagne often 100% Chardonnay; Can be vintage or nonvintage
Blanc de Noirs
Cuvee made exclusively from red grapes in which the grapes are crushed and the juice is pressed off the skins very quickly after harvest; Despite efforts to avoid skin contact, may have a pale salmon hue; Can be vintage or nonvintage
How are Rose wines produced?
Having both red and white wines in the blend
Using a short carbonic maceration of red grapes before pressing
Creating a pink wine via saignee
Occasionally blending of small amount of red wine with dosage
How can adding a small bit of red wine with dosage help the resulting wine?
Helps avoid potential browning during the lees-aging period
What follows assemblage?
Fining
Racking
Cold Stabilization
Liqueur de Tirage
Mixture of yeast and sugar added to a still wine to start secondary fermentation
Why do sparkling bottles have indented punts?
To withstand the pressure that will build in the bottle
What type of closure is put on the bottle for secondary fermentation?
Crown cap
How much growth in alcohol percentage is accomplished during secondary fermentation?
1 to 1.5%
Why does the secondary fermentation occur slowly?
The low temperatures in the cellars or caves
Yeast cells have difficulty multiplying in a wine that already has 10% to 11% alcohol
How much pressure is in the bottle at the conclusion of secondary fermentation?
5 to 6 atmospheres or 75 to 90 psi
Atmosphere x 15 = psi
What are the flavors of autolysis?
Toasty, Nutty Flavors
What is considered an important flavor/aroma component of traditional method sparkling wines?
Autolysis/Lees
Why is a neutral base wine utilized in traditional method sparkling?
Partially because the inherent flavor of the grapes themselves will not compete with the yeasty characteristics created through the production method
What causes a finer, smaller bubble size in the glass?
Longer time sur lie which allows the carbon dioxide to dissolve more thoroughly into the wine
Riddling
Process of turning a bottle upside down and gently shaking it to get the yeast to collect near the cap
Disgorging (degorgement)
Process in which the bottle is opened, yeast extracted and the bottle is resealed as quickly as possible
What is the challenge with disgorging?
Avoiding letting out too much pressure, which is compounded by the fact that the yeast cells tend to stick to the side of the bottle
Pupitre
A-frame rack with holes that stores bottles
How is a pupitre used?
Each day for several weeks (or months), the bottles are shaken momentarily, partially rotated, and angled ever more vertically, causing sediment to move down the side of the bottle and into the neck
How many bottles are held by a gyropalette?
500
Gyropalette
Mechanized version of a pupitre that accomplishing the riddling more efficiently
How long does a pupitre take to accomplish riddling versus a gyropalette?
Pupitre - 2 to 3 months by hand
Gyropalette - less than 1 week
Sur Pointe
French term for resting a bottle in an upside-down vertical position
How is disgorging typically done?
End of the bottle is dipped into an icy brine solution cold enough to freeze the sediment into a slushy “plug.” When the bottle is turned upright and opened, the internal pressure shoots the icy plug out of the bottle, leaving nothing but clear sparkling wine behind
Another name for dosage
Liqueur d’expedition
Dosage
Small wine addition added after disgorgement
How does dosage affect the resulting wine style?
Sweetness can be added to the dosage
Why is it standard to add sweetness to a wine with dosage?
Because of the high acidity of the base wine, which is amplified in the mouth by the bubbles
What is the most common style of Champagne/sparkling wine?
Brut, which contains a sugar addition that is barely (if at all) perceptible
What is the second most common style of sparkling?
Extra dry which has noticeable sweetness
How many atmospheres of pressure is in the bottle at the end?
6
Muselet
Wire cage that holds a cork in place in sparkling wine
Why are sparkling wines cellared for at least a few months at the conclusion of their production?
To give the dosage time to thoroughly integrate with the wine
Sweetness levels of sparkling wine from driest to sweetest
Brut Nature/Sans Dosage/Pas Dose/Dosage/Brut Sauvage Extra Brut Brut Extra dry, Extra Sec Sec Demi-Sec Doux
Brut Nature/Zero Dosage sweetness level
No sugar added
Less than 3g/L
Extra Brut sweetness level
Very dry
Less than 6g/L
Brut sweetness level
Dry
Less than 12g/L
Extra dry/Extra sec sweetness level
Off-Dry
12-17g/L
Sec sweetness level
Slightly sweet
17-32g/L
Demi-Sec sweetness level
Sweet
32-50g/L
Doux sweetness level
Very sweet
More than 50g/L
Alternate names for the tank method
Charmat
Cuve Close (closed tank)
Bulk Method
Why is the tank method the best choice for more aromatic grapes such as Muscat and Riesling?
The resulting wines don’t have the yeasty aromas that would be distracting and incongruent with these grapes
What style of wine does the tank method produce?
A wine that emphasizes youthful, floral, and primary fruit aromas
Does tank method or traditional method cost less?
Tank method; also waste is less
Two wines that use the tank method
Prosecco
German Sekt
Tank method
Method of sparkling production in which the secondary fermentation takes place in a pressurized tank rather than in a bottle
Steps to the tank method
Base wine produced/Cuvee blended
Yeast and sugar added to the tank
Mixture ferments under pressure, keeping the carbon dioxide dissolved in the liquid
If lees aging is desired it is undertaken
Why will the autolytic character not as present in Tank method wines?
The ratio of surface area to wine is reduced
Why is lees contact avoided in aromatic sparkling wines?
Because the emphasis is on fruit character versus autolytic character
How is yeast removed from tank method wines?
By racking the wine to a different tank through a filter to remove the sediment
Is dosage added to the bottles with tank method?
No it is added to the entire batch at once
Transfer Method
Hybrid method of sparkling wine production that begins like the traditional method, but following lees aging all bottles are emptied into a pressurized tank and the process is finished more like the tank method
What does the transfer method accomplish?
A wine more similar to that of the traditional method but without the need for riddling or the individual disgorging and dosage process thus saving continual time and effort by accomplishing 3 important steps at once instead of them being done individually
What is the downside to the transfer method?
The wine is rarely allowed to rest on the lees very long, so the flavor characteristics are less prominent and the filtration could remove some of the flavor along with the sediment
In what circumstance is the transfer method frequently used?
In very small or very large format bottles that are difficult to work with using the Traditional Method
How can you identify a bottle that has used the Transfer Method in the United States?
Fermented in the Bottle or Bottle Fermented on the label
Partial Fermentation Method
Fermentation process in which rather than conducting a full fermentation of the base wine followed by a later second fermentation, a single incomplete fermentation is conducted, usually in two parts
Other name for the Partial Fermentation Method
Asti Method, as it is used for Moscato d’Asti
What is the goal of the Asti Method?
To produce a wine with low alcohol (5-6%) and considerable residual sugar
How is the Asti Method done?
After pressing, juice is allowed to ferment to just a few percentage points of alcohol (sometimes fermentation is avoided altogether at this stage)
Must is rapidly chilled to just above freezing (halting yeast activity)
Wine is racked off sediment to avoid yeasty flavors
Later (sometimes months) wine is warmed enough to allow dormant yeast to start fermentation again
When desired levels of alcohol and carbon dioxide pressure are released, wine is sterile-filtered and bottled
What sort of vessel does the Asti Method take place in?
Pressurized tank, sealing in the carbon dioxide
How do wines produced by the Asti method differ from those produced in the Traditional Method?
Half the alcohol
Half the Pressure
More sweetness
What is the advantage of the Asti method
By keeping the base wine deeply refrigerated, the winery can produce fresh batches throughout the year, as is frequently don with Moscato d’Asti
Does the Traditional Method predate the Ancestral Method?
No, the Ancestral Method was the original method
Best known example of Ancestral Method?
Limoux Methode Ancestrale produced in France’s Languedoc region
Ancestral Method process
Incompletely fermented and thus sweet base wine is bottled
Bottle is sealed
Fermentation continues in the bottle until pressure reaches 1-3 atm and 6-7% RS
Are bottles made in the Ancestral Method disgorged?
No, in homage to the historical practice they are not and a small amount of sediment may remain in the bottle
Wines made in the Methode Rurale method
Bugey Cerdon AOC
Gaillac Mousseux Methode Gailacoise AOC
Methode Dioise Ancestral
Production method for Clairette de Die Methode Dioise Ancestral AOC in the Rhone Valley’s Pays Diois in which a wine is kept chilled to around 50F through the fermentation process which can last up to 6 months – the first few of which are in bulk tanks before continuing in bottle all under refrigeration. Fermentation ends while the wine is still slightly sweet,. Bottles are emptied and the wine is filtered before rebottling
What does Methode Dioise Ancestral aim to mimic?
Ancient way of fermenting the wines of the region when they were submerged in the icy waters of the nearby river
Carbonation
Least expensive method of sparkling production in which carbon dioxide is injected directly into a wine similarly to how soft drinks are made
Why is carbonation not a good method for sparkling production?
Because the carbon dioxide is not naturally created molecule-by-molecule through fermentation, so it does not integrate well into the wine resulting in larger, shorter lived bubbles in the finished product
What wines utilize carbonation?
Wines in the lowest price category
Bottle sizes smallest to largest
Piccolo/Split Half- or Demi-bouteille Standard Magnum Jeroboam Rehoboam Methuselah Salmanazar Balthazar Nebuchadnezzar
Bottle size that was discontinued in 1989
Rehoboam
Size of a Piccolo/Split
1/4 bottle
187.5 mL
Size of a Half- or Demi-bouteille
1/2 bottle
375mL
Size of a Standard bottle
1 bottle
750mL
Size of a Magnum
2 bottles
1.5L
Size of a Jeroboam
4 bottles
3L
Size of a Rehoboam
6 bottles
4.5L
Size of a Methuselah
8 bottles
6L
Size of a Salmanazar
12 bottles
9L
Size of a Balthazar
16 bottles
12L
Size of a Nebuchadnezzar
20 bottles
15L
Centuries ago, it was discovered that adding what to a wine helped prevent spoilage?
Brandy; in fact it was discovered that wines “fortified” with brandy or other spirits not only lasted longer than unfortified spirits but also even evolved in style and improved in quality at the same timed
What did fortification become the standard practice for?
Wines that needed to travel long distances, such as across the oceans to colonial outposts, as well as for wines that could not be kept chilled in a wine cellar
What captured a major segment of the world wine trade and were among the most celebrated wines from the sixteenth to the twentieth century?
Fortified wines such as Sherry, Port, and Madiera
Why does fortification help preserve wines?
Because it raises the alcohol level to a point where spoilage agents, including yeast and bacteria, could not survive – thus fortified wines can last much longer than unfortified either in the barrel or bottle, or after opening
Why did the market for fortified wines decline?
Because toward the end of the twentieth century changes in consumer taste moved away from high levels of alcohol toward drier wines
What is the difference in winemaking between still wines and fortified?
The added step of fortification, otherwise they are inherently the same
What 3 factors represent the differences between fortified wines
Grape Varieties used
Timing of Fortification
Aging Regimen applied after Fortification
What are considered the classic fortified wines?
Port
Sherry
Madeira
How are fortified wines divided?
By when fortification takes place
Two types of fortified wines
Those fermented before fermentation has finished (Port) which are sweet
Those fermented after fermentation is complete (Fino Sherry) which are not sweet
Technically, there is a third type (Madeira/Marsala) that follow both methods of production
Banyuls country/grape variety
France
Grenache
Commandaria country/grape variety
Cyprus
Xynisteri, Mavro
Madeira (sweeter) country/grape variety
Portugal
Malvasia, Boal, Tinta Negra
Madeira (drier) country/grape variety
Portugal
Sercial, Verdelho, Tinta Negra
Malaga country/grape variety
Spain
Pedro Ximenez, Muscat
Marsala country/grape variety
Italy
Grillo, Catarratto, Inzolia, and others
Maury country/grape variety
France
Grenache
Mavrodaphne of Patras country/grape variety
Greece
Mavrodaphne
Moscatel de Setubal country/grape variety
Portugal
Moscatel/Muscat
Muscat de Beaumes-de-Venise coutnry/grape variety
France
Muscat
Muscat de Rivesaltes country/grape variety
France
Muscat
New world port-style wines country/grape variety
California, South Africa, and other New World sites
No limitations but often made from traditional Port grapes, Syrah, or Zinfandel
Port country/grape variety
Portugal
Primarily Touriga Nacional, Touriga Franca, Tinta Roriz, Tinta Barroca, and Tinto Cao; however, several other grape varieties may also be used
Rasteau country/grape variety
France
Grenache
Rutherglen country/grape variety
Australia
Muscat, Topaque(Muscadelle)
Mutage
Process of adding alcohol to the wine before or while it is still fermenting and has a slight amount of sugar in it.
In what way are the majority of fortified wines made?
Mutage; as it is an ideal method for making a sweet stable wine
What is usually desired in the grapes for fortified wines?
High sugar levels to make sure the final product is sufficiently sweet
Is it difficult for grapes to reach the appropriate level of sweetness to become a fortified wine?
No, most of them are made in hot climates.
What can be done if the grapes for a fortified wine are not in a hot enough climate to get to the appropriate level of sweetness?
Late Harvest
Drying of the Grapes
Why is the shortness of the fermentation of fortified wines something that needs acknowledged?
Because there is less time to extract color and other phenolics from the grape skins so special methods may be used to extract these compounds as quickly as possible
If fortification is occurring during fermentation, when is it usually done?
When the remaining sugar level reaches the 8% to 12% range
How is the fermentation halted in fortified wines?
Through the addition of a high-alcohol spirit
What type of spirit is used in almost all fortified wines?
Grape-based spirit (such as brandy), although the level of alcohol can vary between pure and more diluted
What percentage of alcohol must the wine reach to quickly kill all the yeast and stop fermentation?
18-20%
Is the fortification spirit always neutral?
No, it can be, or it may introduce its own aromas and flavors or even be sweet itself raising the overall sugar level
What are most newly fortified wines left in to all the components to become thoroughly integrated?
Barrels
Large Wooden Vats
Tanks
What happens if wooden vessels are used with fortified wines?
Slow oxygen seepage through the wood permits a degree of oxidation that helps further stabilize the wine
2 wines that are intentionally exposed to heat
Madeira
Rutherglen Muscat
What does exposure to heat due to the fortified wine?
Removes an heat-unstable compounds from the wine and makes it nearly indestructible
What is the purpose behind the blending of fortified wines?
Either to re-create a specific, consistent flavor profile for a branded wine, or to incorporate older vintages for wines that are sold based on average age
Most well known fortified wine made in the dry style
Sherry (although not all are dry)
Where is true Sherry made?
In the area surrounding Jerez in far southwestern Spain
Where does the closest equivalent to Sherry in the Old World come from?
Montilla-Moriles region, also in southern Spain
Why are neutral white grape varieties common in dry fortified wines?
Because the dominant aroma and flavor characteristics come from the production process rather than the grape varieties themselves
Two primary grapes of Sherry
Palomino
Pedro Ximenez
What grapes are used for dry style Madeira?
Sercial
Verdelho
Why are grapes handled carefully for dry fortified wines?
To avoid extracting more phenolics than necessary
Why are dry fortified wines fermented at a warm temperature?
To evaporate most of the floral and fruit aromas, although it should not be so high as to introduce any “cooked” aromas
Typical fermentation vessel for dry fortified wines
Stainless steel tanks to keep the wine neutral in flavor
When is the fortification done in the dry style?
After the wine has been fermented to dryness (or nearly so)
Two basic types of Sherry
Fino
Oloroso
Why are Fino Sherries pale in color and light bodied?
Biological aging
Biological aging
Use of flor yeast during the aging process
What happens during biological aging?
Flor yeast floats on the surface of the wine in the barrel, and thrives in a wine that has about 15% alcohol. Thus the flor multiplies until it becomes a thick, protective blanket on top of the maturing wine.
What does the flor prevent?
Oxidation and darkening in color
How do Sherry winemakers encourage the development of flor?
By selecting the best-quality batches of pale, clear, fresh wine to which they add grape spirits mixed iwth an equal amount of older Sherry in order to bring the overall alcohol level up to 15% to 15.5% but no higher
How does the flor survive after fortification in the presence of oxygen?
By consuming any remaining sugars and glycerol in the wine as well as a small amount of alcohol
Are wines aged under a flor lighter or fuller bodied than those that are not?
Lighter (as some of the alcohol could be consumed as well as the glycerol)
How does the flor lower the acid levels of the wine?
By feeding on the acetic acid
What happens to the flor when all the sugar is consumed?
It switches to another metabolic phase in which the oxygen from the atmosphere is used to create chemicals such as acetaldehyde that create a characteristic “flor aroma”
What is the “flor aroma” described as?
Nutty
Bruised apple
Why does browning not occur in the wine when the flor is exposed to oxygen?
Because the flor prevents direct contact
What does acetaldehyde not do in biologically aged wines?
Convert to acetic acid
Why is biological aging named such?
Because the changes in wine are largely due to the action of a living organism
What is the result of biologically aged wines?
Lower alcohol
Lower Acid
Much higher amounts of acetaldehydes
What is true about the base wines used for Oloroso Sherries?
They are not considered to have the quality or delicacy to be made into fino
Why do Oloroso Sherries not develop flor?
They are fortified to 17 to 18% alcohol which is too high for the development of flor
What do Oloroso Sherries not have due to the absence of flor?
High levels of acetaldehyde that characterize finos
Oxidative aging
Aging in direct exposure to air in the partially filled barrels of the solera
What happens to the wine during oxidative aging?
Alcohol increase
Acid increase
Color of the wine deepens
What is the result of oxidatively aged wines?
Fuller-bodied, darkened, flavorful wines dominated by oxidative and caramalized aromas
Why can alcoholic strength raise to as high as 24% in oloroso?
Because water evaporates during oxidative aging
Solera System
Complex network of barrels used for aging Sherry
How does the Solera System work?
Young wine is progressively blended together with a series of older, more complex wines
What is needed for fino sherries aging in the solera system?
new wine to maintain the level of nutrients needed by the flor yeast
What is the longest a flor may be maintained?
6 to 7 years
How long are most fino sherries aged under flor?
2 years, the minimum amount of time required by law
What is a butt in terms of a solera?
Large (600L) American oak barrel
What is the group of barrels containing the oldest wine called in the solera system?
Solera
What are the other groups of butts called in a solera system?
Criadera (Nursery)
How are the Criadera’s numbered?
The oldest wine (short of the solera) is the first Criadera, the next oldest wine after that is the second criadera, and so on
Around how many layers or criaderas are in a large solera system?
A Dozen
What does the final criadera in the solera system contain?
Youngest wine
Spanish term for winery
Bodega
Fractional Blending
Process by which wine is removed from the solera or one of the criaderas (no more than 40% volume) followed by each level filling up the row older than it and new wine going into the last criadera
What is the process of topping up each level of the solera known as
Running the scales
What does ensuring no barrel is ever completely emptied in the solera ensure?
That the average age of the solera continues to grow – even the oldest soleras (many over 100 years old) will contain a tiny proportion of the wine from the year the solera was established
Besides Sherry – what other wines utilize the solera system?
Malaga Montilla-Moriles Marsala Madeira Mavrodaphne of Patras Rutherglen Muscat
Are sherries always dry?
No, prior to bottling they can be sweetened or colored and exist in a wide variety of styles
Why is blending not necessary for wines coming out of the solera?
Because they have already been well blended from running the scales many times; although some bodegas blend different soleras together or several wines of different styles
Are New World sherries equally high quality?
Some can be, but most large-volume producers take liberties with the process to cut costs
What do New World producers do that is not in line with normal Sherry production?
Diverse grape varieties
Flor may not be used or may be quickly infused through a submerged culture churned in a large tank
Fractional blending is rare
What is a Vin Doux Naturel?
Lightly fortified sweet wines produced throughout the South of France
Can VDNs be made from only white grapes?
No they can be made from red and white grapes and made into white, rose, and red styles
What terms are used for aged versions of VDN?
Tawny
Amber
Specific examples of VDNs
Muscat de Beaumes-de-Venise (Rhone Valley)
Muscat de Rivesaltes (Roussillon)
Banyuls (Roussillon)
Maury (Roussillon)
French’s well known Mistelles
Pineau de Charentes AOC
Floc de Gascogne AOC
Where is Pineau de Charentes produced? From what?
In the Cognac region
From Ugni Blanc, Folle Blanche, and Colombard
(some red varieties are used for rose/red production)
What is Pineau de Charentes fortified with?
Cognac
Where is Floc de Gascogne produced? From what?
Armagnac
Often in a white version from Colombard, Gros Manseng and Ugni Blanc
(Small amount of rose is produced)
What are wines such as Pineau de Charentes known as?
Vins de liqueurs
In the EU what does vin de liqueur encompass?
All fortified wines, thus more specific terms are necessary and more accurate
