Unit 2 Flashcards
Principles of scientific research
Based on measurements that are reliable, objective, and valid Generalize Use of technique that reduces bias Made public Can be replicated
Objective measurements
The measure of an entity of behaviour that, within an allowed margin of error, is consistent across instruments and observers
Variable
Refers to the object, concept, or event that is being measured Behavioural measures Magnetic resonance measuring (MRI) Blood or saliva samples Self reporting
Operational definitions
Statements that describes that procedures (or operations) and/or specific measures that are used to record observations
Reliability
When a measure provides consistent and stable answers across multiple observations and points in time
test -retest reliability
Alternate-forms reliability
Inter-rater reliability
Validity
The degree to which an instrument or procedure actually measures what is claims to measure
Generalizability
Refers to the degree to which one set of results can be applied to other situations, individuals, or events
- study large groups
Sample types
Random sample, and convenience sample
Random sample
every individual of a population has an equal chance of being included
Convenience sample
samples of individuals who are the most readily available
Location of study
laboratory vs naturalistic research
Ecological validity
the degree to which the results of a laboratory study can be applied to or repeated in the natural environment
Sources of bias in psych research
Hawthorne effect, demand characteristics, social desirability responding, observe expectancy effect, and placebo effect
Hawthorne effect
a term used to describe situations in which behaviour changes as a result of being observed
Demand characteristics
inadvertent cues given off by the experimenter or the experimental context that provide information about how participants are expected to behave
Social desirability responding
research participants respond in ways that increase the chances that they will be viewed favourably
Observer expectancy effect
researchers expectations influence subjects behaviour
Placebo effect
a measurable and experienced improvement in health or behaviour that cannot be attributable to a medication or treatment
Techniques that reduce bias
anonymity, confidentiality, inform participants, single-blind study, and double-blind study
Anonymity
each individual’s response are recorded without any name or other personal information that could link a particular individual to specific results
Confidentiality
means the results will only be seen by the researcher
Inform participants
reduces participants anxiety and social desirability bias
Single-blind study
the participants do not know the true purpose of the study, or else do not know which type of treatment they are receiving
Double-blind study
a study in which neither the participant nor the experimenter knows the exact treatment for any individual
Peer review
a process in which papers submitted for publication in scholarly journals are read and critiqued by experts in the specific field of study
Replication
the process of repeating a study and finding the similar outcome each time
Anecdotal evidence
an individual’s story or testimony about an observation or event that is used to make a claim as evidence
Appeal to authority
the belief in an “expert’s” claim even when no supporting data or scientific evidence is present
Appeal to common sense
a tradition or novelty
Types of descriptive research
case studies, naturalistic observation, surveys and questionnaires
Descriptive data
data from observations with no attempt to explain why
Case studies
In-depth reports about the details of a specific case
ex) Phineas Gage
Naturalistic observation
When psychologists unobtrusively observe and record behavior as it occurs in the subjects natural environment
Surveys and questionnaires
Participants make observations
Correlational research
involves measuring the degree of association between 2 variables
Correlations have…
direction (+ vs -) and magnitude (correlation coeeficient from -1 to +1
Illusory correlations
relationships that really exist only in the mind rather than in reality
How can variables be manipulated?
random assignment, experimenter control, between subjects design, within subjects design,and the quasi-experimental method
Random assignment
a technique for dividing samples into two or more groups
Experimenter control
variables are manipulated
Confounding variables
variables outside of the researchers control that might affect the results
Between subjects design
participants who are in different groups are compared
Within-subjects design
all participants respond to all types of stimuli or experience all experimental conditions
Quasi-experimental method
a research technique in which two or more groups that are compared are selected based on predetermined characteristics, rather than random assignment
Ethics in psychology
Risks vs. benefits
Consent
Participant rights
Oversight
Research Ethics Board (REB)
a committee of researchers and officials at an institution charged with the protection of human research participants
Potential stress to participants
Physical stress
Cognitive and emotional stress
Mortality salience
Writing about upsetting or traumatic experiences
Stress usually minor; benefits need to outweigh risks
Informed consent
A potential volunteer must be informed (know the purpose, tasks, and risks involved in the study) and give consent (agree to participate on the information provided
What must be included to have informed consent from a participant?
Topic Nature of stimuli Nature of tasks Duration Risks Steps to minimize risks
Deception
misleading or partially informing participants of the true topic or hypothesis under investigation
Full Consent
Not participate without penalty
Given equal opportunities
Opt out anytime
Withhold responses
Debriefing
means that the researchers should explain the true nature of the study, and especially the nature of and reason for deception
When are animals used for research
Treatments cannot be applied to humans
Heritability studies require species with short lifespans
Examining evolutionary origins of behaviour and cognition
Ethical treatment of animals in research
Given appropriate housing, feeding, and sanitation
Risk and discomfort needs to be justified and managed humanely
Descriptive statistics
A set of techniques used to organize, summarize, and interpret data
Frequency
Central tendency
Variability
Frequency
The number of observations that fall within a certain category or range of scores
Central Tendency
a measure of the central point of distribution (mean, median, mode)
Variability
The degree to which scores are dispersed in a distribution
Standard deviation
a measure of variability around the mean
Hypothesis test
a statistical method of evaluating whether differences among groups are meaningful, or could have been arrived at by chance alone
Statistical significance
implies that the means of the groups are farther apart than you would expect them to be by random chance alone
