Unit 2 Flashcards
Hindsight bias
The tendency to believe after learning an outcome that would have foreseen it ( I knew it all along )
Theory
Explanation using a set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events
Operational definition
A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a study
Replication
Repeating the essence of a research study , usually w different participants in different situations , to see whether the basic finding extends to others and circumstances
Case study
A technique in which one person or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
Naturalistic observation
Observing & recording behavior in natural occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
Survey
A technique for reporting attitudes or behaviors of a group , usually w questioning & random sample of a group
Sampling bias
A flawed process that produces an unrepresentative sample
Population
All those in a group being studied from which samples may be drawn
Best basing for generalizing about a population is
Representative sample
Descriptive methods describe but DO NOT
Explain behavior bc these methods do not control for the many variables that can affect behavior
Correlation
A measure of extent to which two variables change together and how well either variable predict each other
Correlation coefficient
Statistical index of the relation between two numbers
-1 & 1
Scatter plot
Cluster of dots in which represents two slopes
Slope suggests direction of relationships between two variables
Amount of scatter plot suggests the strength of correlation
Illusory correlation
Perception of a relationship where none exists
Experiment
Method in which a person manipulates one or more factors ( independent variables ) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental processes
Experimental group
The group exposed to the treatment , that is , one version of the independent variable
Control group
The group not exposed to the treatment , serve as the comparison group
Random assignment
Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance , the minimizing preexisting difference between groups
Double blind procedure
An procedure in which both the participants and the staff are ignorant blind about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo . Commonly used in drug studies
Placebo effect
Experimental results caused by expectations alone ; any effect on behavior caused by administration of an inert substance or condition , which the recipient assumes as an active agent
Independent variable
The factor that is manipulated ; variable being studded
Confounding variable
A factor other than the independent variable that might produce a effect
Dependent variable
The outcome factor ; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable
Validity
Which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to
Positive correlations
Two variables rise together
Negative correlation
One variable rises while the others falls
Scatter plots can help us see
Correlations
Descriptive statistics
Numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups include measure of central tendency & measure of variation
Histogram
A bar graph depicting the frequency distribution
Mode
The most frequently occurring store in distribution
Mean
The average of the distribution
Median
The middle score in a distribution ; half
Skewed distribution
A representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value
Range
The difference between the highest & lowest scores in a distribution
Standard deviation
Used most often , a statistic that indicates the average distance of the scores from the mean
Normal curve
A symmetrical bell shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data ; most fall in mean
Inferential statistics
Numerical data that allow one to generalize to infer form sample data the probability of something being true of a population.
Statistical significance
A statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance
Culture
The enduring behaviors , ideas , attitudes , values , and traditions shared by a group
Informed consent
An ethical principle that participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate
Debriefing
The post experimental explanation of a study ; including its purpose
Why is an operational definition necessary when reporting research findings
It allowed others to replicate the procedure
Which of the following is most important when conducting a survey research
Choosing a representative sample
Measure of variation
Range
Descriptive stats do what
Summarize data
Which is more likely to be emphasized in individualist cultures than in collectivist cultures
Personal achievement
Which ethical principle requires that at the end of the study particpants be told bout the true purpose of the research
Debriefing
After the student council election , a friend tells you he has known for weeks who would be president .. what is this
Hindsight bias
A testable prediction that drives research is known as
Hypothesis
Placebo
Effect experimental results caused by expectations alone
What are the characteristics of experimentation that make it possible to isolate cause and effect
They do experiments Use random assignment Study the variables Studies may use double blind to avoid placebo effect Experiment has validity
The purpose of random assignment is
Ensure that every member of the population had an equal chance of being selected to participate in the research
Central tendency
A single score that represents a whole set ( mode , mean , & median )
How do we know whether an observed difference can be generalized to other populations
Need to know the sample studied was representative of the larger population being studied
Which statistical measure of central tendency is most affected by extreme scores
The mean
How are human and animals research participants protected
Animal protection legislation lab regulation and inspection and local ethics committees serve to protect human and animal welfare
Can lab experiments illuminate everyday life
Researchers create a controlled environment in the lab in order to test general theoretical principles ; they help explain everyday behaviors
Why do psychologist study animals & is it ethical to experiment on them
Some are primarily interested & others want better understanding of physiological and psychological processes shared by humans & species
Which descriptive statistic would a researcher use to describe how close a student SAT score is to a school score
Standard deviation
When a distribution of scores is skewed , which of the following is the most representative measure of central tendency
Median
Which of the following is a potential problem w case studies
They may be misleading bc they don’t fairly represent other cases
A scientists willingness to admit that she is wrong is
Humility
What is the only one that can prove cause
Experiment
Positive skew
If the right tail is longer
Negative skew
If the left tail is longer
Frequency distribution
Report findings from an observation
Hawthorne effect
Some subject will alter their behaviors simply bc they know they’re part of an experiment
Random assignment
All the subjects have a equal chance in each group
Cluster sample
Divide population into multiple groups ( random )
Convenience
Use population that is available
Correlations can’t
Prove a cause !
Surveys should use
Random sample
A low standard deviation
The data points tend to be close to the mean
The mean is higher than median when
It’s skewed to the right
The median is higher than the mean when
It’s skewed to the left
