The Loire Valley Flashcards
What are the classic white grapes of the Loire?
Chenin Blanc
Sauvignon Blanc
Melon de Bourgogne
What is the most important red varietal in the Loire?
Cabernet Franc (locally known as Breton)
What is the main style of wine produced in the Pays Nantais?
Muscadet
What is the grape used to make Muscadet?
Melon de Bourgogne
What are the Pays Nantais appellations designated for Melon de Bourgogne?
Muscadet AOP
Muscadet Coteaux de la Loire AOP
Muscadet Côtes de Grandlieu AOP
Muscadet Sèvre-et-Maine AOP
What percentage of Muscadet production is labelled as Muscadet Sèvre-et-Maine AOP?
More than 80%
What are the three subregions where Hermine d’Or wines may come from?
Clisson
Le Pallet
Gorges
What is the Pays Nantais’ climate type?
Cool and wet maritime
What region is the Loire’s center for sparkling wine production?
Saumur
What is the primary grape of white wines from Anjou?
Chenin Blanc
What percentage of Anjou’s wine production is rosé?
45
What is the primary grape of rosé wines from Anjou?
Grolleau
What is the primary grape of red wines from Anjou?
Cabernet Franc
What is the general appellation for Anjou?
Anjou AOP
What style of wine is Anjou Blanc AOP known for?
White wines that have aggressive acidity and bitterness
What grape(s) are allowed in the production of Savennières AOP?
Chenin Blanc
What is the main soil type of Savennières AOP?
Blue schist mixed with volcanic debris
In what year did Savennières’ unoffical grands crus acheive AOP status?
2011
What are Savenneières’ two unofficial grands crus?
Roche aux Moines AOP
Coulée de Serrant AOP
What style of wine is made in Coteaux du Layon AOP?
Sweet white wine from 100% Chenin Blanc
What style of wine is made in Coteaux de l’Aubance AOP?
Sweet white wine from 100% Chenin Blanc
What color(s) of wine may be produced in Anjou-Villages AOP?
Red
What grape(s) are allowed in the production of Anjou-Villages AOP wines?
Cabernet Franc
Cabernet Sauvignon
What color(s) of wine may be produced in Saumur AOP?
Red
Dry white
Sparkling white
Sparkling rosé
Touraine production by colour of the wine, % ?
- Touraine production
- 50% whites (usually from east);
- 40% reds
- 10% rosés
What are the 2 sub-appellations of Savennieres, long regarded as unofficial grands crus?
What is unique about 1 of them?
Roche Aux Moines
Coulée de Serrant.
Coulée de Serrant is a monople of the biodynamic winemaker Nicolas Joly.
What are the differences between Rose de Loire, Cabernet d'Anjou, Rose d'Anjou, Sancerre Rose?
Rose de Loire - Made mainly in Anjou-Saumur. Always dry.
Cabernet d'Anjou - Medium sweet and made from a blend of Cab Franc and Cab Sav
Rose d'Anjou - less sweet than Cab d'Anjou and largely made from Grolleau blended with Cab Franc and others.
Sancerre Rose - Must be made 100% Pinot Noir. Pale colour,light in body and dry with delicate fruit flavours
What grape are the wines of Chinon and Bourgueil based on?
How do flavours differ based on soil type?
Cabernet Franc
Sandy soil - Light and fruity
Limestone and clay slopes - Riper - Full bodied and tannic
What type of wines are produced in Menetou-Salon, and from which grapes?
Why would you recommend these wines to a guest?
White: 100% Sauvignon Blanc
Red: 100% Pinot Noir
Rosé: 100% Pinot Noir
More moderately-priced alternatives to Sancerre and Pouilly-Fumé
Name the sub-region within the Loire that corresponds to the following appellations:
1. Coteaux d'Ancenis
2. Coteaux de l'Aubance
3. Jasnieres
4. Quincy
1. Coteaux d'Ancenis: Pays Nantais
2. Coteaux de l'Aubance: Anjou-Saumur
3. Jasnieres: Touraine
4. Quincy: Central Vineyards
Which of the following contains the most residual sugar by law?
A. Sec
B. Moulleux
C. Demi-Sec
D. Quarts de Chaume
D. Quarts de Chaume
What are the 3 major and 5 minor white grapes of the Loire Valley?
Major: Chenin Blanc, Sauvignon Blanc, Melon de Bourgogne.
Minor: Chardonnay, Orbois, Romorantin, Gros Plant (Folle Blanche), and Chasselas.
How many key appellations in Pays Nantais?
Name them.
Four
Sevre et Maine
Muscadet
Coteaux de la Loire
Cotes de Grandlieu
Size of Loire vineyards?
Average holding?
training and harvesting?
- 50,000ha of vines (1/2 of Bordeaux; similar to Rhone)
- Avg holdings 20ha with high density planting at 4-5,000 plants/ha (up to 10,000plants/ha in Sancerre)
- Biodynamic farming on the rise but spraying still frequent
- Mechanical harvesting common (excl. sweet wines of middle Loire)
- Vines either cordon or cane (Guyot) trained
Which grapes are permitted in Vouvray?
min. 95% Chenin Blanc
max. 5% Orbois
Despite Sancerre and Pouilly Fume heroics where is the majority of Sauvignon Blanc made into wine?
Touraine
Vitculture hazards of Pays Nantais?
Spring frost and rain during season
Put the following appellations in order from West to East:
Vouvray
Sancerre
Savennieres
Chinon
Muscadet Sevre-et-Maine
Quincy
1. Muscadet Sevre-et-Maine
2. Savennieres
3. Chinon
4. Vouvray
5. Quincy
6. Sancerre
Sauvignon Blanc?
Sauvignon blanc:
- Late budding; Early ripening; Suitable for cool climates/regions with threat of Autumn rains
- Vigorous; Best on poor soils; use of low vigour rootstock + canopy management to avoid shading
- Prone to powdery mildew; Botrytis bunch rot; Trunk disease (esca etc; if cordon trained, Eutypa die back)
- Pronounced intensity of Grass, musky, Bell Pepper, Asparagus; Gooseberry, Grapefruit, Wet stone flavour (mineral undertones in cooler areas) to Riper passion fruit (warmer areas)
- Medium Body; Medium Alcohol, Fresh High Acidity
- Fruit grown in Shady conditions will result in higher green pepper, grassy notes; Fruit in more sunlight will have more tropical notes
- Picking date imp as Acidity will drop
- 70% plantings in Central vineyards
- Most designed to be drunk within 2 years but some examples of long lived Sancerre & Pouilly Fumé
In which region of the Loire Valley is Vouvray located?
Touraine
What is the difference between Vouvray and Montlouis-sur-Loire?
Montlouis-sur-Loire
- sandier, lighter soils - less defined and earlier maturing wines
What AOC exports the most? and what is relative order of the others?
- The appellations in export volume terms:
- Sancerre AOC – is the largest by far
- Muscadet AOC
- Rose d’Anjou & Cabernet d’Anjou AOCs
- Touraine AOC
- Vouvray AOC
Reuilly AOC?
Reuilly AOC (●●●)
- next to Quincy
- Produces fine austere whites from Sauvignon B;
- light reds from Pinot Noir and rosés from Pinot Gris & PN
- Same maximum yields as in Sancerre
- Limestone soils around the village of Reuilly
- Small size – just over 200 Ha.!
- Gamay sold as VdP red.
Gamay Noir?
Gamay Noir:
- Generally made by carbonic maceration, as in Beaujolais
- Some found in Anjou;
- Principally grown in Touraine & central vineyards
- High yields -> usually grown in gobelet
- Gamay de Touraine: light, slightly acid, cheaper alternative to Beaujolais Also used in IGP Loire
- Early budding and ripening (-> prone to spring frosts)
Wine production in Vouvray - what styles are produced?
- Wine production
- Considerable vintage variation
- Dry Vouvray made every year
- Demi-sec in some years
- Sweet white Vouvray is rare
- cool cellars carved in tuffeau allow for wine 2nd fermentation for sparkling.
- Largest and most recognised Chenin blanc appellation; comes in dry, medium dry, sweet & sparkling
- Sparkling 40% of production; produced in larger quantities in leaner years. Still wine = 60%.
Working east from the coast what are the 4 key regions of the Loire Valley?
Nantais
Anjou-Saumur
Touraine
Central Vineyards
What is Cabernet Franc locally known as in the Loire Valley?
Breton
What is the only type of wine made in Quincy AOP, and from which grape(s)?
White wine, from Sauvignon Blanc w/a max. 10% Sauvignon Gris
Describe the style
Why can Chenin Blanc be a pain to harvest and what is the countermeasure?
Takes a long time to ripen.
Even within one bunch common for grapes to reach different levels of ripeness.
Several passes through the vineyard might be necessary to pick grapes at desired ripeness.
What is Grolleau?
A red grape variety used to make Rosé still and sparkling wines in Anjou
How do Pouilly-Fume and Sancerre compare?
Pouilly Fume
- is more rounded and less aromatic - with some cask ageing used which contributes to the roundness on the palate.
- needs longer to be ready to release - 6 months to one year in bottle before release
Menetou-Salon AOC?
Menetou-Salon
- Same max yields as in Sancerre
- Just west of Sancerre; gentle South facing soils; more vulnerable to Frost with limestone & flatter landscape
- Whites from Sauvignon blanc (60% of production) and Reds & Rosés from Pinot Noir.
- Similar style to Sancerre & better prices -> fast growing area
- Good to Very Good ; Inexpensive to mid priced
Structure of the wine trade in the Loire?
What % do the main production types make up of Loire wine production?
mainly family owned businesses
Negociants 50%
Estates 40%
Cooperatives 10%
The three soil types of Sancerre? and the impact they have on the style of the wine
- Caillottes:
- Very shallow soils; 25-40mm over limestone;
- said to produce most aromatic; first to be ready to drink;
- less potential for ageing
- Terre Blanches:
- Same limestone & Marl found in Chablis – Kimmeridgian marl;
- Slow ripening;
- Producing most structured wines that need long maturation before being ready to drink,
- some famous vineyards; Cote des Monts Damnes; Cul de Bujeau
- Silex:
- Around Sancerre; Flinty soils; accumulate heat
- Leading to early ripening
- Producing wines with Mineral & Smokey notes: Les Romains
Cru Communaux has three 'Crus', explain what this AOC means
Muscadet Cru Communaux
- 3 Muscadet Cru Communaux been launched
- Clisson, Gorges, Le Pallet
- if grapes grown exclusively in the area, name can be added to label
- Lower max yield; 45 hl/ha
- wines have to kept on Lees:
- for 18 mths (Le Pallet)
- 24 mths (Clisson, Gorges)
- cannot be labelled Sur lie as the long requirement of ageing on Lees means that they are bottled after the required date for Sur lie;
- Typically, rounder, complex with longer finishes
What are the 4 different Sweetness levels of Vouvray AOP?
Sec: 0-8 g/L residual sugar. Sometimes producers will specify their bone dry wines as Sec-Sec or "dry dry" and their slightly less dry wines as Sec-tendres or "gently dry".
Demi-Sec: A "half-dry" style with 4-12 g/L
Moelleux: A sweet, often botrytized style with 12-45 g/L. The term Moelleux is French for "mellow".
Doux: The sweetest style with > 45 g/L.
Anjou Villages AOC?
- Anjou Villages AOC:
- Higher quality reds from designated areas are made as Anjou Villages AOC
- Cab Franc, Cab Sav; Singly or blended; mostly Cab Franc in practice
- 55 hl/ha; wines released in Sept after harvest
- Brissac is one famous Village – known for its quality – Anjou AOC Brissac
Fill in the blanks
Which regions are labeled on the map below as A,B,C,D,E and X?
A: Vouvray
B: Montlouis-sur-Loire
C: Bourgeuil
D: Saint-Nicolas-de-Bourgeil
E: Coteaux de Loire
X: Chinon
describe the Savennieres AOC, location, soil, viticulture, and wines
Savennières AOC(●) Chenin blanc, dry
- Small prestigious – specialises in dry Chenin Blanc
- North bank of the Loire; immediately South-west of Angers
- South facing slopes; low fertility rocky Schist soils
- Dry area with schist soils that slope to the river’s edge; restrictive yields
- low yields give concentration & ripeness
- max yield of 50 hL/Ha.
- Wines
- Very High Acidity + High levels of Alcohol; Austere in youth & require many years of bottle age before they become approachable
- With warmer climates now & improved vineyard techniques, wines are fruitier & more concentrated, approachable styles; some creating premium Cuvees using a proportion of new Oak.
- Can be perceived as steely & tart young; requires 4-5 yrs to mellow
Saumur-Champigny AOC, describe the AOC.
Saumur-Champigny AOC (●)
- Cabernet Franc – minimum 85%
- Named after Champigny village;
- Soils: Chalk, Flint ,Clay: Combines to offer good drainage & water holding Potential
- 57hl/ha; Low flavour intensity
- Wines: Pale Ruby; Medium to Medium(+) Intensity; Red currant, some leafy aromas; Medium Alcohol; High Acidity; Medium Tannin
- Released as early as Dec after harvest; intended for early drinking
- Good to very Good; In expensive to mid-priced
- Very successful in Paris bars – soft approachable style of Cabernet Franc
- CLOS ROUGEARD – is a premium producer
4 Top Muscadet Producers:
Domaine de la Chauvinere
Clos les Montys
Domaine de la Pepiere
Domaine de l'Ecu
Anjou-Saumur is an important center for Rose - what are the three key AOCs for Rose and describe the wines
Rosé de Loire AOC (●) Dry Rose
- Cab franc, cab sauvignon, gamay, Grolleau noir
- Rarely produced outside of Anjou-Saumur
- Max yield 60 hl/ha
- Always Dry
Rosé d’Anjou AOC (●) Medium-dry
- mainly Grolleau Noir, with Cab Sav, Cab Franc, Cot & Gamay blend
- 65 hl/ha: low flavour intensity
- Pink – Orange; Medium Intensity Red Berry; Medium (+) Acidity; Medium Alcohol; Medium Dry
- Inexpensive to mid
- Has generally been sweet and considered low quality
- Best selling of all 3 AOC’s
- quality improving
Cabernet d’Anjou (●): Medium dry
- cab franc + cab sauvignon,
- sweeter than rosé d’Anjou and age-worthy
- 60 hl/ha
- Deeper colour than most rose ( medium pink) & Medium Dry
What is the synonym in Pays Nantais for Gros Plant?
Folle Blanche
Producers of dessert wine in the Loire Valley typically make multiple passes through the vineyard during harvest, otherwise known as "_____ successives."
"tries"
What is the climate of Touraine?
Cool Continental
Muscadet AOC, details?
Muscadet AOC (●)
- Larger: Basic regional appellation.
- Used to be only Melon de Bourgogne (or Muscadet) authorised.
- Max. yield 65 hL/Ha.
- Chaptalisation up to 12%; from 2018, may include 10% Chardonnay
- Dry; low Intensity; Green Apple, Grassy; High Acidity, light Body
- Acceptable to Good;( some very good); Inexpensive
What is the climate of the Central Vineyards?
Continental - with frost and hailstorms an issue
750mm rainfall
Exports of the Loire by country?
20% of total production
UK 20%
Germany 20%
USA 18%
Chenin Blanc can be used to make many styles, what are it's charcteristics and where does it stand out?
What is it locally known as?
Characteristics when young / aged?
High acid non aromatic grape stands out in Anjou-Saumur and Touraine.
Locally known as Pineau de la Loire
Young - rigid and austere.
Aged - greater complexity and honeyed richness.
What are the key grapes of Central Vineyards?
Sauvignon Blanc
Pinot Noir
Cabernet Franc?
Cabernet Franc:
- Early budding; Prone to spring frosts
- Prone to Coulure; reduction in yields
- Mid ripening; if picked before autumn rains begin, can taste leafy
- Incidence of overly herbaceous avoided by better canopy management
- Winter hardy; good variety for cool areas
- Medium to pronounced Intensity: Red currant, Raspberry; Floral (violet); light to medium Body, High Acidity
- 18,000ha; Well suited to cool inland climates
- Compared to Cabernet Sauvignon:
- Buds, matures earlier -> easier to ripen fully
- Less susceptible to poor weather at harvest
- Lighter in colour, the wines have berry fruits flavours, unobtrusive tannins and higher acidity
- Single Varietal or part of Rose blend
In Eastern Touraine, blended with Cot (Malbec
What are the tasting notes of classic Sancerre and Pouilly Fume?
High acidity, meduim body, hints of green apple and wet stones.
Pouilly Fume is also known for subtle smoky notes
Working West to East what are the key appellations of Touraine?
Bourgueil, Chinon
Vouvray
Touraine
Describe the two sub appellations of Savennieres
- 2 sub-AOCs:
La Roche aux Moines AOC
Coulée de Serrant AOC
- south facing schist slopes near Angers; facing Loire river; riper fruit
- 30 hl/ha for dry wines
- intense, complex & age-worthy whites
- Coule de Serrant: monopole of Nicolas Joly, leading champion of biodynamics
Vouvray must be made from at least 95% Chenin Blanc and up to 5% ___?
Orbois
4 Top Sancerre Producers:
Domaine du Nozay
Paul Cherrier et Fils
Henri Bourgeois
Alain Girard
Folle Blanche?
Folle Blanche:
- Produces acidic & neutral wines
What is the sole permitted style of Muscadet AOP?
Dry white wine
There are three important red wine AOCs in Touraine, name them?
Chinon, Bourgueil, Saint Nicolas de Bourgueil
What viticultural practices are needed in Pays Nantais to get good fruit?
- improved canopy management to get ripeness
- leaf removal to prevent risk of fungal disease;
- Attention paid to ripeness of skin & pips in setting harvest date
- Hot years can see sugar levels too high prior to ripeness of fruit
Bonnezeaux is a botrytis-affected sweet wine from which sub-region?
Coteaux du Layon, within Anjou-Saumur
% of production from each area?
- Split of production:
- Anjou-Saumur – 48%
- Touraine – 24%
- Central Vineyards – 14%
- Pays Nantais – 14%
Bouvet-Ladubay is associated with which wine/vineyard area?
Loire/Saumur
What are the 3 soil types of found in Sancerre/Pouilly-Fumé?
"Terre blanches": a continuation of the same Kimmeridgian clay that extends into Chablis.
"Caillottes": a stony soil, littered with fossils.
"Silex": higher proportion of flint, continuing into the communes of Pouilly-Fumé across the river.
Pinot Noir?
Pinot Noir:
- 20% of plantings in Central vineyards
- Medium ruby; Light to Medium Intensity; Raspberry, Strawberry, High Acidity, Medium Alcohol, Mid to Premium
Wine business of Pays Nantais - what has been its history since the 80s?
What business model controls most of the sales?
Wine Business
- Huge success in Britain in the 80s
- 13,000 Ha.s at its peak
- 1991 a severe frost cut production by 2/3rds
- Sought to reposition as terroir-specific wines
- Exports for Pays Nantais is 17% by volume (low)
- Négociants account for >50% of sales
- Many smaller Négociants have been bought by larger companies
What is the IGP of the Loire Valley?
Val de Loire IGP
The minimum amount of Cabernet Franc required in Saumur-Champigny is _____ %.
What other grapes are allowed?
Min. 85% Cabernet Franc.
Max. 15% combined Cabernet Sauvignon and Pineau d'Aunis.
What is the white winemaking approach in the Central Vineyards and describe the resulting Sauvignon Blanc wine.
White wine
- Typically in temperature controlled stainless steel tanks
- Ferment Temps slightly higher than New World;
- Upper end of cool to low mid-range - for restrained fruit flavour
- MLF blocked (some allow it depending on style & vintage)
- Maturation
- Higher quality wines may be aged in old oak casks to fill out Body
- Some lees work while in barrel for high quality examples
- Typically there is no barrel maturation for the wines
- Sauvignon Blanc
- Pronounced intensity aromas of grass, bell pepper, asparagus with gooseberry and grapefruit
- w/ wet stone (cooler areas)
- w/ riper passionfruit (warmer areas)
Chinon is located where?
south bank of Loire river on the Vienne river
Where is the center of Loire Valley sparkling wine production?
What are these wines made from?
Saumur.
Min. 60% Chenin Blanc. Max. 10% Sauvignon Blanc.
There are sub zones of Touraine - how many of them?
- In addition to Touraine AOC, Name of one of the 6 sub zones may be added
- 6 sub zones are AOCs in their own right
- This allows for the diff varieties used, reflecting what is grown locally
- Examples – Touraine AOC Amboise
- Whites made from Chenin Blanc not SB
- Lower max yield of 55 hL/Ha.
Sub zones AOCs have lower yield maximums generally
Vouvray and Montlouis-sur-Loire are separated by the _____ river.
Loire
What wine is produced by the producer below?
What grape is used?
Vouvray
Chenin Blanc
Climate and soils of Pays Nantais?
Climate and Soils:
- close to the Atlantic Ocean
- Cool maritime climate
- Cool springs, warm & humid summers;
- threat of rain through growing season
- Well drained soils: old soils » = schist, granite, gneiss, sand
- Despite proximity to Atlantic, Spring Frosts a serious issue;
- Producers investing on prevention or protective measures like wind machines, heaters, burning straw bales
Which Red wines in the Loire Valley are made predominantly from Cabernet Franc?
Saumur-Champigny
Chinon
Bourgueil
Chinon's soils can be divided in 3 broad categories:
Clay
"Tuffeau": Chalky, fine-grained limestone.
"Varennes": Sandy, alluvial soils.
Working West to East what are the key appellations of Anjou-Saumur?
Savennieres, Coteaux de Layon
Anjou
Saumur, Saumur-Champigny
Which Loire Valley Rosé style is always dry?
Which are sweet?
Dry: Rosé de Loire
Sweet: Cabernet d'Anjou, Rosé d'Anjou
What is "pourriture noble"?
A French synonym for botrytis cinera.
What are the key appellations of Anjou Saumur?
Saumur, Saumur Champigny
Anjou
Savennieres, Coteaux de Layon
Rose d'Anjou, Cabernet d'Anjou, Rose de Loire
Quarts de Chaume AOC, describe it and what the AOC rules are.
- Quarts de Chaume (Grand cru from 2019): (first GC)
```
- extremely top quality
- long lasting sweet wines from Chenin blanc
- tiny – only 30 Ha.
- min 18 degrees potential alcohol, and 20 hL/Ha (1820)
Climate of Vouvray
continental with maritime influences, and has considerable vintage variation
How are the sauvignon blanc grapes gently treated in winemaking to preserve the fresh, fruity, varietal flavours?
Pneumatic pressing, temp controlled fermentation in stainless steel
What grapes are used in Reuilly AOP for:
Red
White
Rosé
Red: 100% Pinot Noir
White: 100% Sauvignon Blanc
Rosé: Pinot Noir and Pinot Gris
Chenin Blanc
Chenin Blanc:
- Early budding: prone to spring frosts
- Vigorous; high yielding
- Late ripening; vulnerable to onset of Autumn rains
- Prone to Powdery mildew; botrytis bunch rot; trunk diseases
- Ripens unevenly; picked on several passes, limiting mechanical usage where botrytis is sought
- Dominant variety in Loire: Sparkling; dry off dry, sweet
- Wines:
- Medium Intensity
- HONEYED, WET STRAW, Green Apple & Lemon (sometimes steely smoky character)
- Medium Alcohol
- HIGH ACIDITY (balanced with RS for off dry style)
- Chenin blanc / Pineau de Loire - most versatile grape in the world
- Mostly vinified as varietal but up to 20% Sauvignon or Chardonnay allowed in Anjou and Saumur
3 Top Chinon Producers:
Domaine Bernard Baudry
Domaine Breton
Domaine de Noiré
Chateau de la Grille is associated with which wine/vineyard area?
Loire/Chinon
Vouvray AOC - what is the varietal requirement?
95% Chenin Blanc min.
Cabernet Sauvignon?
Cabernet Sauvignon:
- Late ripening; preforms best in temperate Anjou
- Blended with Cab franc;
- Used in Rose blends
- with concentration of phenolics and tannins
- Extremely vigorous vine but susceptible to powdery mildew, eutypa and excoriose
- Ripens slowly
- Often blended with Merlot & Cabernet Franc
- Produces deep coloured, age-worthy reds with aromas of blackberries Slowly gaining ground in Loire
What grapes are used in the best sparkling Saumur?
Chardonnay, Chenin Blanc and Cabernet Franc
Bonnezeaux AOC, describe it and the AOC rules
Bonnezeaux AOC:
- top sites for some of the world’s greatest sweet whites
- about 80 Ha.s in size
- Regulations stricter than Coteaux du Layon + Village, less strict than Quarts de Chaume
- Higher potential Alcohol, Lower yields, results in High Intensity & rich texture
- 15 degrees potential alcohol, and 25 hL/ha
The geographic designations of Muscadet Sèvre-et-Maine lie along the _____ river.
Sévre
As a modern winemaker how would you ferment Muscadet?
Key objective retain varietal delicacy and freshness so ferment in temp controlled s. steel or concrete
Saumur AOC - what varietals are allowed and yields
Saumur AOC
- White: Chenin blanc
- Red: Cabernet Franc
- Rose: Cabernet Franc & Cabernet Sauvignon
- Max yields are 60 hl/ha for whites; 57 hl/ha for Reds & Roses
- The high maximum yields lead to some low flavour intensity wines
St. Nicolas-de-Bourgueil may only produce what kinds of wine?
Based mainly on which grape?
Red and Rosé
Cabernet Franc, up to 10% Cabernet Sauvignon
What is the most appropriate alcohol range for Sancerre blanc?
12-13.5%
Where is Loire wine sold in France?
50% Supermarkets
30% in Hospitality
Vouvray AOP may produce red wines from Pinot Noir.
True or False?
False
What is the style of basic Muscadet and how is Muscadet Sevre et Maine "sur lie" different?
Neutral, bone dry to dry, high in acid, and designed for youthful consumption
Sevre et Maine is a superior appellation and 'sur lie' wines are bottled between March 30 and November 1 following harvest having spent the Winter on its lees.
Adds complexity, richness, and a slight sparkle to the finished wines.
What is the maximum residual sugar, in grams per liter, of Vouvray sec?
8g/L
Muscadet Sevre et Maine AOC - details
Muscadet de Sèvre et Maine AOC (●); 8800 ha
- Largest: Directly South-east of Nantes;
- Max yield 55 hL/ha
- largest AOC with 80% of production; monoculture area
- Vineyards on rolling hills with some high quality sites.
- Ambitious wines from clay soils of schist & granite slopes.
Vallet and Saint Fiacre are suitable for ageing
What 4 appellations of Nantais are based on Melon de Bourgogne?
Muscadet
Muscadet Sevre et Maine
Muscadet Coteaux de la Loire
Muscadet Cotes de Grandlieu
Anjou-Saumur makes how much of Loire wine?
what wines generally?
48%
Chenin (dry, off dry, sweet) and Cabernet Franc (Rose, Reds)
In which appellation is Francois Chidaine located?
Montlouis-sur-Loire
What is the climate of Nantais?
What is the soil type?
Cool, wet Maritime
Volcanic (gneiss, silica), clay and Granite; warming and good drainage.
Considering climate risks why is Melon Blanc a vine-grower's friend?
The grape ripens early and is frost resistant.
What are the key appellations of Central Vineyards?
Sancerre (Sancerre Rose)
Pouilly Fume
Menetou Salon
Which major region produces the most white wine in France?
The Loire Valley
What is the 1 major and 6 minor red grapes of the Loire Valley?
Major: Cabernet Franc.
Minor: Pinot Noir, Gamay, Cabernet Sauvignon, Malbec, Pineau d’Aunis, and Groslot (Grolleau).
Saint-Nicolas de Bourgueil AOC
Saint Nicolas de Bourgueil AOC (●●)
- Most westerly red AOC;
- northern bank of the Loire
- Lighter style than Bourgueil AOC
- Lighter soils for fruity reds and rosés best drunk young.
Despite Sauvignon Blanc being an aromatic grape what 2 things might winemakers allow / use in cool vintages?
MLF
Lees contact
Varietals for Touraine AOC reds and roses?
- Reds: Principal varieties are Cabernet Franc, Cot (Malbec), Cabernet Sauv, Pinot Noir Gamay, Grolleau & Pineau d’Aunis
- Rosés: same as reds + Pinot Meunier.
Anjou AOC - what are the basic rules for white, reds, rose
Anjou AOC (●●●)
- 60 hl/ha for Red & Whites; 67 hl/ha for Rose (low intensity flavour)
- Anjou Blanc: min 80% Chenin
- Anjou Rouge: 70% Cab franc &/or Cab Sav
· May opt to forsake the appellation system and opt for Vin de France
· Very large AOC stretching from the borders of Muscadet to the town of Saumur
· Most of the production is rosé, whites represent 15% and reds continue to rise in quantity & quality
· Sweet wines difficult to sell due to low demand for sweet wines; Producers are producing less of the sweet & more of the dry
· Within Anjou, 3 most important appellations for sweet wine and 1 dry for Chenin blanc
What is the topography and moderating influences of Sancerre?
- 200-400m average Sancerre hills, some steep hillside slopes
- River & nearby forests moderating influences against spring frosts
What style constitutes the majority of Anjou wine production?
Grolleau-based Rosé
Sur Lie - on lees - why is this done and what are the rules around this winemaking technique?
Sur Lie (on lees):
- Typical of Pay Nantais; way of filling out body of the light bodied wines
- After ferment is complete, one racking permitted to remove gross lees
- Wine remains in contact with fine lees through winter until bottling
- Ageing on lees also retains freshness & may retain any CO², which is part of the style
- Must be bottled between 1st March & 30 th Nov from harvest & IN the winery made in;
- Later bottling adds to the cost
- Therefore, Négociants can only buy grapes, must or bottled wine but not wine aged sur lie
- Labelling term Sur lie maybe added to any 4 of appellations
What is the next step up from Coteaux du Layon within the AOC?
How does the botrytis/late harvest affect the harvest?
Describe the wines made.
- Coteaux du Layon AOC + named Village
- Grapes need to be picked in several passes to pick only affected grapes
- Lower yields and higher potential alcohols
- Wines:
- Pronounced aroma; Cooked Citrus & Apple, Honey notes;
- Medium (+) Body, Medium Alcohol
- High Acidity; Sweet finish
- Mid to Premium
Melon?
Melon
- Only allowed variety in Pays Nantais
- Hardy, suited to cool region
- Early budding; prone to spring frosts
- Early ripening; produces high yields
- Resistant to Powdery mildew; susceptible to Downy ; Botrytis bunch rot( which need humidity to thrive)
- High Acidity; Light Body, Low Alcohol; Low Intensity; Green apple,
- Good to very good; inexpensive to mid
- Imported from Burgundy in 17th
- Resisted the 1709 harsh winter
- Regular and high yields
- Importance only due to Muscadet
What is the only permitted grape of Montlouis-sur-Loire AOP?
Chenin-Blanc
Which appellations in Anjou-Saumur produce sweet wine?
What grapes are used, and how is swetness attained?
Bonnezeaux AOP
Quarts-de-Chaume AOP
Coteaux du Layon SGN AOP
All 3 wines are made from 100% Chenin Blanc, late-harvested, botrytis-affected grapes.
What are the winemaking techniques employed in making red Chinon?
- Winemaking
- Max yield 55 hl/ha; Low flavour
- usually 100% Cabernet Franc – max of 10% of Cabernet Sauvignon allowed
- short maceration (6-8 days) – early drinking styles
- long maceration (2-3 weeks) – more structured and powerful wines – released later onto the market
- Wines with extended maceration - aren't approachable when young but can live for more than 20 year due to high acidity, intense flavour profile, med-med+ tannins
Details on Cotes de Grandlieu and Coteaux de la Loire?
Muscadet Côtes de Grandlieu AOC (●)
- On Southern bank of the Loire, Southwest of Nantes,
- close to the Atlantic; influence of Lac Grand Lieu
- Max yield 55 hL/ha
Muscadet Côteaux de la Loire AOC (●)
```- On Northern bank of the Loire, northeast of Nantes; fuller bodied less acidic wines
- Max yield 55 hL/ha
- Only 32 Ha??
What is the synonym in Pays Nantais for Gros Plant?
Folle Blanche
Coteaux du Layon AOC - explain where it is, what it specialises in.
Côteaux du Layon AOC (●) Chenin blanc, sweet
- Located on steep slopes on the right bank of the R Layon
- Specialises in wine made by Botrytis affected grapes; if botrytis fails to form, vines may be dried on the vine
- Natural high acidity of Chenin allows luscious sweet wines to be balanced
- Fresh fruit character and acidity of sweet German wines but with more body & alcohol.
Explain the three winemaking approaches for Chenin Blanc, Cabernet Franc and then Rose in Anjou-Saumur
Winemaking
- Chenin Blanc
- At cool to mid-range temperatures
- Fermentation can last several months
- MLF is usually avoided
- Matured in large neutral containers
- Aim is to preserve primary fruit characters
- Cabernet Franc
- Fermented in concrete or old wood vats
- Punch downs and pump overs are typical
- Ambient yeast preferred
- Aged in used oak barrels
- Aim to maintain primary fruit flavours
- Premium wines see some new oak
- Rose winemaking:
- Direct press to tank
- Short macerations;
- short ageing (3-4 mths) in neutral containers
What are the 3 geographical subzones of Muscadet Sevre-et-Maine?
Clisson, Le Pallet, and Gorges
Which two French regions are 2nd only to Champagne in volume of Sparkling wine production?
Saumur and Vouvray
Wine Estates in the Loire - what is their role in selling Loire wine ?
- Estates
- sell 40%
- increasing number have a négociant side to the business as well
- increased as frosts & hail damaging their grapes,
- hence have bought in grapes to keep clientele happy
- & avoiding financial difficulty
- 13,000 family estates but growing consolidation of family holdings
Describe the Pouilly-Fume AOC, location, soil, and wines
Pouilly-Fumé (●)
- SB only - 65 hl/ha
- On flatter land; prone to Frost in spring (wind machines used)
- Same soils as in Sancerre
- Eastern bank of Loire river; facing Sancerre; slightly flatter vs. Sancerre
- Limestone soils -> flinty, mineral notes
- Higher proportion of cask ageing makes for less herbaceous character & more rounded vs. Sancerre.
- Similar price & quality as Sancerre
- Tends to be rounder, less aromatic than Sancerre
- needs more time; 6 mths to year in bottle to sell
What grape is Muscadet made from?
Melon Blanc | (Melon de Bourgogne)
Who produces the wine "Clos du Papillon"?
Where is it produced?
Domaine du Closel
Savennieres
Climate of Anjou-Saumur?
Climate
- Moderating influence of Atlantic Ocean decreases progressively in Anjou-Saumur & then Touraine
- Maritime climate in Anjou-Saumur (continental in Touraine)
- Rain: 700mm; throughout the year
- Rain means that there is high disease pressure
- River Layon: tributaries create misty conditions; ideal for Botrytis
What % is Sauvignon Blanc of the Central Vineyards?
And Pinot Noir?
70%
20%
How does the location of a vineyard in Vouvray relative to the Loire river influence the wine?
- Viticulture
- Soils become more clay away from the river inhibiting ripening – cooler soils
- Best vineyards on slopes that overlook the R Loire
- promoting ripeness due to good sunlight interception
- moderating influence of river
What are the main grapes are used for the following appellations?
Chinon
Sancerre Blanc
Bourgeil
Muscadet Sevre et Maine
Savennieres
Pouilly-Fumé
Vouvray
Sancerre Rouge
Chinon: Cabernet Franc
Sancerre Blanc: Sauvignon Blanc
Bourgeil: Cabernet Franc
Muscadet Sevre et Maine: Melon Blanc
Savennieres: Chenin Blanc
Pouilly-Fumé: Sauvignon Blanc
Vouvray: Chenin Blanc
Sancerre Rouge: Pinot Noir
Touraine is part of the middle Loire, describe the climate, viticulture and wine production
TOURAINE
- 24% of Loire wines
- Climate
- Continental climate; cold winters & warm summers
- Rain:700 mm
- Rain falls throughout the year
- More continental than Anjou-Saumur but not as continental as the central vineyards
- Viticulture
- High disease pressure due to rain throughout year
- Wine production
- WHITE - Sauvignon Blanc is the key white varietal for white production but contains largest Chenin Blanc AOC in Vouvray
- RED - Cabernet Franc, Cot (Malbec) for red production
- ROSE - Two Cabernets, Cot, Gamay, Grolleau Noir
- White, red, rose and sparkling are all made in Touraine
What is the climate of Central vineyards?
What is the soil type?
Continental
Chalky and stony = well drained
Bourgueil AOC?
Bourgueil AOC (●●)
- Red wines; some rose
- usually 100% Cabernet Franc; 10% Cabernet Sauvignon theoretically allowed
- 55 hl/ha
- South facing slopes on Loire’s northern bank;
- sand & gravel w chalky substratum
- Gentle climate w low rainfall
- More powerful and tannic wines vs. Chinon
Savennieres and Coteaux du Layon are both made in Anjou-Saumur from Chenin Blanc. How do the wines differ and why?
Savennieres - Dry, austere and rigid in youth, develops complexity and richness with age. Good air circulation around the vines enables late harvest, steep south-facing slope, whilst impeding Noble Rot.
Coteaux du Layon - Renowned sweet wine. Lies in a sheltered valley of R. Layon that encourages Noble Rot
Working West to East what are the key appellations of Central Vineyards?
Menetou-Salon
Sancerre
Pouilly-Fume
Where is Savenierres located, what kind of exposure does it have and what is its soil made of?
-North bank of the river Loire, south of Angers.
-Steep south-facing aspect.
-Soil is a unique mixture of blue schist and volcanic debris.
In which direction does Touraine Noble-Joué AOP lie from the Loire River?
South
Working West to East what are the key appellations of Nantais?
Muscadet
Muscadet Sevre et Maine
What is the climate of Anjou Saumur?
What is the soil type?
Continental with a maritime influence
Granite and tuffeau (local limestone)
Grolleau Noir?
Grolleau Noir:
- Early budding; Mid ripening
- Prone to botrytis bunch rot
- Mainly used as a blending variety in roses, especially Rose d’Anjou & Rose de Loire
- Everyday red grape of Touraine
- High yields for thin, acidic wines
- Being replaced with Gamay or Cabernet Franc
- Banned from Anjou, Saumur & Touraine AOCs (except Rosé d’Anjou
AOC)
- Blended with Gamay in Rosé d’Anjou
Quincy AOC
Quincy AOC (●)
- Next to river Cher
- South-West of Sancerre;
- Sauvignon blanc grown on sandy gravel soils for fruity, aromatic & soft whites
- Wines - Sauvignon Blanc (min 90%) & Sauvignon Gris ; Same max yield as in Sancerre
- Slightly more rustic vs. Sancerre & better prices -> fast growing area
Sancerre export statistics - what do they look like in volume and value
- Sancerre outperforms all other appellations
- In volume terms a long way ahead
- On price the whites achieve another 50% per litre than the other white AOC wines
- And double the average price per litre for its Reds and Roses
The white varietals of the Touraine AOC?
- Whites:
- Principal variety is Sauvignon blanc, Chenin blanc, Arbois & Chardonnay (max 20%)
- Max 65 hL/Ha.
Which appellation is Didier Dagueneau associated with?
What is the name of his top bottling?
What is notable about his winemaking style?
Pouilly-Fumé, Loire Valley.
"Silex"
He experimented with aging his Sauvignon Blancs in new oak, rather than stainless steel.
What styles of wine are made in Vouvray?
What is the primary grape?
How do these wines range in style?
Dry / Sweet, Still / Sparkling.
White wines made from Chenin Blanc.
Wines range in style from dry to lusciously sweet, light-medium body, fresh fruity and floral notes.
Winemaking techniques for Muscadet?
Winemaking:
- Chaptalisation up to 12% potential alcohol in cooler years
- Fermented; aged in large, shallow underground concrete Vats, some SS used
- Aim to keep wine neutral as possible
- Typically MLF avoided; preserving natural high acidity of style
- To lift profile of Muscadet experimentation with:
- skin contact & Ferment in barrel
- use of amphora and concrete egg
What is the only permitted grape of Montlouis-sur-Loire AOP?
Chenin Blanc
What are the 4 key appellations of Touraine?
Vouvray - Dry --> Sweet, Still and sparkling
Chinon
Bourgueil
Touraine
Negociants in the Loire?
- Négociants:
- selling 50% of all wine by volume
- (top 10 négociants account for 82% of all Négociant sales);
- Négociants have increasingly opted to vinify themselves;
- Negociant owned wineries include: Grand Chais de France buying Chateau des Fesles (Bonnezeaux) & Chateau de Cleray (Muscadet serve et Maine)
Wine production by colour in the Rhone valley
Wine
o 80% is Red
o 13% is Rose
o 7% is White
o 8% is Organic
o 69% is AOC
o 31% is IGP
o 6% of production volume for AOC wines is Northern Rhone crus
Vineyard areas by North vs. South
• Vineyard areas are very different
o <4,000 Ha. in the North
o 66,000 Ha. in the South
Summary of winemaking in the Rhone Valley
In general:
- the winemaking in the Rhône Valley is traditional with a preference for concrete vats for fermentation (though stainless steel and large wooden vessels are also in use)
- and for small and large wooden vessels for maturation.
- Grenache Noir:
- is prone to oxidation and premature loss of colour if it is exposed to too much oxygen
- and is typically fermented and aged in concrete vats or stainless steel tanks.
- Syrah:
- is prone to reduction – struck match notes/H2S from lack of oxygenation
- and has to be pumped over more often and is often aged in oak to provide gentle oxidation, adding to cost.
- Some high-quality producers in the northern Rhône use a proportion of new French oak barrique, but this is less prevalent than in the 1990s.
Production of Red Cru level wines?
PRODUCTION OF RED CRU-LEVEL WINES
- Grapes are harvested by hand and transported in small crates, ensuring whole, unbroken bunches arrive at the winery.
- Grapes may be destemmed, chilled and cold soaked for 1-3 days to extract colour
- Alternatively, grapes may be left as whole bunches (or partially destemmed) and vinified as such, to promote lifted aromatics
- Producers carry out fermentation in stainless steel, large concrete tanks or open top wooden fermenters
- Producers choose either cultured or ambient yeasts
- Fermentation is at warm temperatures to enhance extraction of colour, flavour and tannin
- Period of maceration on the skins for full extraction, 20-30 days with punch-downs, pump-overs or rack and return
- Maturation for 12-24 months in large oak vessels for Grenache, small barrels for Syrah and Mourvèdre, 20–30 per cent new.
Production of inexpensive red wines
PRODUCTION OF INEXPENSIVE HIGH-VOLUME RED WINES
- Grapes will typically have been harvested by machine.
- Because inevitably some will have been crushed, it is important to process the entire volume quickly to avoid bacterial infection
- Hand picking and carbonic maceration is an option for some to enhance colour and fruit intensity and produce wines with low tannins, suitable for early drinking
- Large producers may use flash détente or thermovinification for processing large volumes of fruit quickly
- Use of cultured yeasts to ensure quick, reliable fermentation to dryness
- Fermentation at mid-range temperatures to retain fruit
- Short period of maceration on the skins for light extraction of tannins
- Ageing for 4-6 months in stainless steel and early release for sale
Rose winemaking?
ROSÉ WINEMAKING
- The wines, for example in Tavel (see below) are typically made by through a short maceration, where the grapes are pressed after a cold maceration on the skins for 12–48 hours and then the grapes are pressed.
- Fermentation is then completed as for a white wine.
- The period of maceration provides the required depth of colour, flavour intensity and light tannins.
- The wines are typically aged in oak or concrete large vats or stainless steel though some producers will age some top wines in old small oak barrels to add texture.
- (This method is sometimes referred to as the saignée method but in this case the idea is to make only rosé wine from the grapes and all of the juice extracted from them. It is not the case that must is drawn off to make rosé as a by-product of concentrating what will become a red wine.)
White wine winemaking?
WHITE WINEMAKING
- Most white wines are fermented at mid-range temperatures to retain fruit.
- Malolactic conversion is sometimes avoided to retain natural acidity.
- Most wines are aged in large old oak or stainless-steel vessels.
- The natural full body of the white Rhône varieties means that lees stirring is sometimes avoided, though some do stir the lees for a yet fuller-bodied style (e.g. M. Chapoutier’s Hermitage).
- Some wines are matured in oak, adding a layer of complexity and occasionally also fermented in oak for better fruit-oak integration.
- Both fermenting and maturing in small oak barrels adds cost.
Syrah?
- Syrah
- only red grape authorised in Northern Rhone
- DNA profile shows its parentage is Mondeuse Blanche and Dureza with a relationship to Pinot and Viognier
- Needs warm climate to ripen
- Relatively productive and disease resistant
- Late budding and ripens relatively early
- High levels of anthocyanins
- Responds well to mature in oak
- Loses aromas & acidity if yield is high
- Wines have deep ruby colour, medium to pronounced intensity aromas
- Flavours of violet, plum, blackberry, black pepper and herbal notes
- Acidity and tannin are medium to high
- Syrah adds structure, fruit and colour to Southern Rhone blends
Grenache Noir?
- Grenache Noir
- Needs warm climate to ripen properly
- Ripens late
- Can be affected by Autumn rains
- Vigorous – does better on poorer soils
- Good drought resistance
- Affected by coulure (shatter – when flowers don’t set due to wind, rain)
- Downy mildew, Phomopsis and botrytis bunch rot affect it
- Major component in southern Rhone blends
- Pale ruby colour
- Ripe red fruit; strawberry, red plum, red cherry and spicy, herbal notes
- High alcohol
- Low to medium tannins
- Low acidity
Mourvedre?
- Mourvèdre
- Late budding variety and late ripening
- Thrives in warm to hot climates
- Needs hot summers to fully ripen
- Not drought resistant
- Produces low yields
- Strongly prone to reduction in the winery – needs to be pumped over and oxygenated
- Deep ruby colour
- Intense aromas of blackberry, blueberries and violets
- High alcohol
- Firm, high tannins
Cinsaut
- Cinsaut
- Late budding and high yielding variety
- Good drought and disease resistance
- Restricted yield to produce quality
- Prone to esca (trunk disease) and Eutypa
- Small part of southern Rhone red blends
- Made usually in a way to preserve the fruit
- SS vessels, with mid range fermentation temperature
- Light ruby colour
- Medium to medium + intense aromas of fresh red fruit (raspberry, red cherry)
- High alcohol
- Low to medium tannins
- Lifted aromas most prevalent when young – good for early drinking wines
Marsanne?
- Marsanne
- Most likely a parent-offspring relationship with Roussanne
- Late budding and mid ripening
- Vigorous, productive, and best on stony low fertile soils
- Large bunches but small berries
- One of the six white varieties allowed in white Cote du Rhone
- Produces Medium Lemon – sometimes golden, full bodied, sometimes fat wines, medium acidity, flavours of honeysuckle, rich almond and pear
- Blended with Viognier and/or Roussanne
- MEDIUM ACIDITY – clue to remembering it is the lesser quality one
- Has SIMILAR qualities to Viognier
Roussanne?
- Roussanne
- Traditional high-quality Northern Rhone white variety
- Russet colour of mature berries
- Does well on exposed, poor, stony, calcareous clay soils
- Susceptible to powdery mildew, botrytis
- Generally blended with Marsanne in Hermitage, Crozes-Hermitage and Saint Joseph to make the best white wines
- makes elegant wines, good acidity, perfume of herbal tea, spring blossom
- permitted in Chateauneuf-du-Pape & Cote du Rhone
- late budding – less frost risk
- wines do age quicker than Marsanne?
- Wines medium lemon in colour sometimes gold
- Medium to medium+ intensity aromatics of pear, herbal notes
- Medium to medium+ acidity and Medium to high alcohol
- Normally blended with other varieties, i.e. with Marsanne in Northern Rhone and Clairette and Grenache Blanc in southern Rhone
Viognier
- Viognier
- DNA analysis has shown that this variety has Mondeuse Blanche as a parent and a relationship with Syrah
- Some people hypothesis it was bought to France by the Romans
- Was down to 14Ha. Planted in 1960s, in Condrieu but now planted widely worldwide
- makes full bodied wines rich in aromas (when ripe), apricot, honeysuckle, deep golden colour, with a viscous texture
- Chateau Grillet and Condrieu are its epicentre
- Traditionally blended into Cote Rotie red wines, to add aroma and stabilise colour
- Allowed in Cote du Rhone, Cote du Rhone Villages and Lirac
- Early budding – risk of spring frost
- Yields tend to be low and unpredictable due to susceptible to coulure
- Picking must be judged carefully to get pronounced flavours – only there when the fruit is fully ripe
- Medium lemon in colour – pronounced honeysuckle, apricot and peach
- Medium to high alcohol and low acidity
- Up to 20% allowed in some Northern Rhone red wines that are otherwise made with Syrah
Bourboulenc?
- Bourboulenc
- Late ripening with loose bunches and thick skins
- Disease resistance
- Late ripening
- Used in Southern Rhone white blends
- Lemon flavours (appears simple?)
- Medium + acidity and medium alcohol
Grenache Blanc?
Grenache Blanc
- Early budding so suited to warm frost free regions
- Good wind resistance with an erect habit
- Tendency to reach high alcohol potential
- Low intensity ripe green fruit and floral notes
- high alcohol and low acidity
Clairette?
- Clairette
- Vigorous white variety grows well in low fertility dry soils
- Pruned hard to control vigour
- Relatively wind resistant
- Ripens late
- Oxidises easily, needs careful handling
- Primarily white blends in southern Rhone
- Adds freshness to white blends
- White flower, fennel, apple and grapefruit
- High alcohol and medium (-) acidity
