Textbook Chapter 9 Flashcards
what approach is chapter 9 about?
the biological approach
people often expect children’s personalities to resemble…
their parents
early view of baby’s personalities
were thought to be blank slates
limited by diffs in intelligence or physical skills, maybe, but otherwise equally able to develop into any type of person
but this view has changed - no reputable psychologist today would deny that personality is at LEAST PARTLY result of INHERITED BIOLOGICAL INFLUENCES
differences in physical functioning…
translated into differences in personality/behaviour
ie. diff brainwave activity, hormone levels, heart-rate responsiveness…
human personality is product of…
many years of evolutionary development
move away from blank slate take on personality partly due to…
move away from behaviourism
which ignored individual diffs in newborns
3 ways psychologists have used biological concepts to explain personality that will be explored in this chapter
- Hans Eysenck’s ideas
- temperaments
- evolutionary personality psychology
what was Eysenck first concerned with?
figuring out the underlying structure of personality
he employed factor analysis and found types/supertraits
Eysenck’s three basic personality dimensions
- extraversion-introversion
- neuroticism
- psychoticism
basic level of Eysenck’s personality model
specific response level
^ consists of specific behaviours
ie. watch a man laughing with his friends on a certain day
second level of Eysenck’s personality model
habitual response
^ when specific behaviours repeat themselves frequently
ie. a man laughing with his friends most days of the week
third level of Eysenck’s personality model
trait level
^ when habitual responses are very important to the person, and are defining of them
ie. a man that lives for social gatherings - exhibits the TRAIT OF SOCIABILITY
fourth level of Eysenck’s personality model
supertrait level
ie. trait like sociability is part of a LARGER DIMENSION of personality - that of EXTRAVERSION
outline of Eysenck’s personality model
from top to bottom
- supertrait level (ie. extraversion)
- trait level (ie. sociability, impulsiveness, activity, liveliness, excitability)
- habitual response
- specific response
Eysenck’s extraversion/introversion dimension
EXTRAVERT: sociable, like parties, many friends, needs to talk to people, doesn’t like reading or studying alone
INTROVERT: quiet, retiring sort of person, introspective, fond of books rather than people reserved and distant except to intimate friends
most people fall in between these two extremes
Eysenck’s neuroticism dimension
HIGH scores: tendency to respond emotionally
^ unstable, highly emotional, more easily upset, angered, depressed
Eysenck’s psychoticism dimension
HIGH:
^ egocentric, aggressive, impersonal, cold, lacking in empathy, impulsive, lacking concern for others, unconcerned about rights/welfare of others
Eysenck quote on heritability
“heritability is not a fixed number. once you realize what’s inherited, there’s a lot you can do about it”
Eysenck’s 3 arguments in his case that individual personality differences are based in biology
- consistency of extraversion-introversion over time
- cross-cultural research
- studies indicate genetics play important role in determining person’s placement on each of the 3 personality dimensions
Eysenck’s consistency of extraversion-introversion over time argument
study found that Ps extraversion-introversion scores remained consistent of 45 year time span
BUT this finding alone doesn’t establish biology’s role in personality
- could be that people remain in similar environments throughout their lives
- OR that after this part of personality is cemented, it is hard to change
Eysenck’s cross-cultural research argument
find same 3 dimensions of personality in studies from all sorts of countries/cultures
even appear when using different data-gathering methods
level of cross-cultural consistency = unlikely unless biological factors were largely responsible for personality
how much of variance in personality did Eysenck say could be traced back to biological factors?
2/3rds
biology probably sets limits on HOW MUCH WE CAN CHANGE an introverted friend into a highly sociable person
or LIKELIHOOD of shaping an impulsive, outgoing child into a calm, easygoing adult
Eysenck’s physiological explanation for diff between extraverts and introverts
they have diff levels of CEREBRAL CORTEX AROUSAL when in non-stimulating environments
EXTRAVERTS have lower level of cortical arousal than introverts
^ as a result, they SEEK OUT HIGLY AROUSING SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR because their cortical arousal is well below desired levels
INTROVERTS instead operate at cortical arousal level NEAR or ABOVE the optimal amount
^ select solitude/non-stimulating environments to keep their already high arousal from becoming too aversive
has research discovered the base-rate cortical arousal referenced by Eysenck?
no
introverts and extraverts DO DIFFER in how certain parts of their brains respond to emotional stimuli
BUT show NO DIFF in brain-wave activity when at rest or asleep
HOWEVER there is evidence that introverts are MORE SENSITIVE to STIMULATION than extraverts
differences in sensitivity to stimulation between…
introverts and extraverts
introverts are MORE QUICKLY and STRONGLY AROUSED when encountering loud music/active social encounter
introverts are more RESPONSIVE than extraverts when exposed to CHEMICAL STIMULANTS (caffeine, nicotine)
now, rather than describing introverts and extraverts in terms of differences in cortical activity…
describe them as different in their SENSITIVITY TO STIMULATION
but effect of this is the same as what Eysenck proposed:
“because of physiological differences, introverts are more quickly overwhelmed by the stimulation of a crowded social gathering, whereas extraverts are likely to find the same gathering rather pleasant. extraverts are quickly bored by slow-moving movie plots and soft music, but introverts often find these subtle sources of stimulation engaging”
reinforcement and biological-based differences between introverts and extraverts
reinforcement sensitivity theory
reinforcement sensitivity theory
each human brain has a BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH SYSTEM (BAS) and a BEHAVIOURAL INHIBITION SYSTEM (BIS)
individuals DIFFER IN STRENGTHS of these two systems
highly active BAS = intensely motivated to seek out/achieve pleasurable goals
highly active BAS
part of reinforcement sensitivity theory
high BAS = VERY MOTIVATED to seek out and achieve pleasurable goals
- get more pleasure out of rewards
- get more ENJOYMENT out of EVEN ANTICIPATING that rewards are coming
- experience MORE ANGER/FRUSTRATION when they FALL SHORT of reaching anticipated sources of pleasure
people with highly active BIS tend to be…
more APPREHENSIVE than others
approach new situations WARILY
on CONSTANT LOOKOUT for danger
QUICK TO RETREAT when they sense problems
anxiety and highly active BIS
more likely to experience anxiety than low BIS people
Hans Eysenck birth-death years
1916-1997
Eysenck background
born in Germany into a family of celebrities
father: actor and singer - idol in Europe
mother: silent film star
parents planned glamorous career in entertainment field for Hans, starred ina film when he was 8
but then his parents divorced
most of his early years were spent with his Gma in Berlin
pursued physics and astronomy
then moved to England
career at uni of London
Eysenck background psychology-related
uni of London
pursued biology controversies
paper challenging effectiveness of psychotherapy
especially critical of psychoanalysis
Eysenck - “controversialist in the intellectual world”
he was very combative
against psychotherapy and psychoanalysis
pro biology differences
pro cigarettes
he liked this - “I have usually been against the establishment and in favour of the revels”
most researchers see connection between BAS and _______ and BIS and ______
BAS and extraversion
BIS and neuroticism
means that people with highly active BAS are similar to those scoring high in extraversion
and people with highly active BIS are similar to those scoring high in neuroticism
implication of BAS: extraverts aren’t necessarily attracted to…
ALL social situations
but ONLY to those that are likely to be enjoyable
^ one study found that extraverts actually preferred nonsocial situations (going for a solo walk) more than introverts if they thought the experience would be pleasant
is it likely that some people are born to be sociable while others are born to be shy?
no
more likely that we’re born with BROAD DISPOSITIONS towards certain TYPES OF BEHAVIOURS - aka temperaments
temperaments
general patterns of behaviour and mood
can be expressed in many ways
depending on one’s experiences, develop into diff personality traits
how general dispositions (temperaments) develop into stable personality traits depends on…
complex interplay of one’s GENETIC PREDISPOSITIONS and the ENVIRONMENT that a person grows up in
researchers often disagree on the ________ of basic temperaments
number
three temperament dimension moel
- emotionality
- activity
- sociability
three temperament model: emotionality
INTENSITY of emotional REACTIONSS
HIGH: easily upset, reactive temper
three temperament model: activity
general level of ENERGY
HIGH: move around a lot, prefer active hames, fidget and squirm, always on the go
three temperament model: sociability
general tendency to AFFILIATE and INTERACT with others
HIGH: seek out others, lots of friends, enjoy social gatherings
where do temperaments come from?
largely inherited
we can identify temperamental diffs in babies
not all babies are born alike - some are more active, more emotional…
gender diffs in temperament
GIRLS: more likely to exhibit EFFORTFUL CONTROL temperament
^ ability to FOCUS ATTENTION and EXERCISE CONTROL over impulsive urges
BOYS: more likely to have a SURGENCY temperament
^ high levels of ACTIVITY and SOCIABILITY
surgency temperament
more common in boys
high levels of activity and sociability
age at which gender diffs in temperament can be seen
about 3 months of age
can we look at temperament levels in PRESCHOOL kids and determine what kind of adult personalities they’ll have?
yes, to a certain degree
longitudinal study: 91% of kids born in New Zealand town - tested for temperament at age 3
identified 3 temperament types in these kids
- WELL ADJUSTED (self control, confidence, capable of approaching new people and situations easily)
- UNDER-CONTROLLED (impulsive, restless, easily distracted)
- INHIBITED (fearful, reluctant to get involved in social activities, uneasy with strangers)
then looked at them as adults - and the patterns held
NZ longitudinal study - under-controlled 3 year olds were later more likely to…
ELEMENTARY SCHOOL/ADOLESCENCE: have problems with fighting, lying, disobeying at both school and home
ADULTHOOD: by 32, were TWICE as likely to have problem with EXCESSIVE GAMBLING as those who were originally classified as well-adjusted
NZ longitudinal study: inhibited children later showed…
more signs of WORRYING and FUSSING when growing up
as adults, were LESS SOCIAL and more likely to experience DEPRESSION
complexity of environment in which general temperaments develop into personality traits
child’s general level of emotionality or activity points personality development in a certain direction
but that development is ALSO influenced by child’s EXPERIENCES
ie. highly emotional child has better chance of becoming aggressive adult than does a child low in emotionality
BUT if they have parents who encourage problem solving skills instead of anger expression, they may turn into a cooperative, non-aggressive adult
less direct connection between biology and personality characteristics
general behavioural dispositions also affect the development of personality traits because the child’s TEMPERAMENT INFLUENCES the TYPE OF ENVIRONMENT they live in
how others react to us (or if they want to be a part of our environment at all) is partly determined by our temperament
ie. sociable children seek social interactions
ie. parents react differently to constantly crying baby versus a chill one - different parent-child relationships are possible
temperaments also generate expectations…
expectations IN OTHER PEOPLE that affect the ways they treat children
ie. preschool teachers in one study expected diff personalities in their classes based on observations of their general activity levels
these expectations lead to them treating different children differently
recap of relationship between temperament and environment
adult personalities are shaped by both
- temperament influences the environment people grow up in
- the environment influences the way temperament develops
two children born with identical temperaments can grow up to be very different people
one trait that is remarkably stable across time
inhibition versus un-inhibition
10% of white american children fall into which category?
inhibited
inhibited children
controlled and gentle
“monitored, restrained, almost soft”
cling to their parents when entering a new room/meeting new kids
slow to explore new toys
may go several minutes without saying a word
10% of american caucasian children
uninhibited children
25% of children
jump right in to play with a new toy
talk a lot
even if they don’t know the other children who are present
difference behind inhibited and uninhibited children
on the surface, seems like a difference in LEVELS OF ANXIETY
but inhibited children aren’t simply more afraid of everything… they’re vulnerable to a SPECIFIC FORM OF ANXIETY
^ anxiety to novelty
specific form of anxiety that inhibited children have
anxiety to novelty
as kids: cautious about/fearful of new people/situations
as adults: withdraw socially/wait for others to speak first
signs that point to inherited nature of diffs between inhibited and uninhibited people
show number of physical diffs almost from MOMENT OF BIRTH
differ in:
a) BODY BUILD
b) ALLERGY SUSCEPTIBILITY
c) EYE COLOUR (inhibited children = more likely to have blue eyes)
inhibited children are more likely to show what during first few months of life?
irritability
sleep disturbances
chronic constipation
respond to unfamiliar stimuli with increased heart rate and pupil dilation
neuro-imaging diffs between inhibited and uninhibited people
- their brains react differently to EVENTS and IMAGES
- react to NOISES with different brain stem responses
- have abnormally high AMYGDALA response
- increased STRIATUM activity when presented with NOVEL/UNCERTAIN stimuli
children who showed inhibited behaviours at 21 months of age also…
showed inhibited behaviours at age 5.5
stable!
inhibited children are much more likely than uninhibited children to become ___ teens
shy
socially-anxious
^ inhibited children were SEVEN TIMES more likely to suffer from social anxiety disorder in adolescence than children not identified as inhibited
study measuring if inhibited children become inhibited adults
study measured inhibition in children between ages 8-12
then tested the SAME people 10 years later
correlation of 0.57 (impressively high) between the 2 measures
study found that being an inhibited child was a risk factor for…
adult anxiety disorders
especially social phobia
are inhibited kids sentenced to become shy adults?
no
parents can become SENSITIVE to child’s discomfort in unfamiliar settings and can TEACH child how to deal with new situations/people
many business leaders, community workers, entertainers have learned to overcome their shyness and lead very social lives
does connection between inhibited children and later social problems apply to all cultures?
remains open question
one study found that Chinese toddlers identified as inhibited at age 2 actually had better social relationships at age 7 than the average child
uninhibited children are susceptible to what problems?
disruptive behaviour disorders
ie. aggressiveness, attention problems
our experiences of anxiety generally involve…
some sort of negative evaluation
or rejection by other people
but why?
why is negative evaluation from others a source of anxiety?
is this learned/conditioned?
is there a psychoanalytic basis?
or is this an inherited tendency that allowed our species to survive? > evolutionary approach
evolutionary personality theory
use process of natural selection to explain universal human characteristics
many characteristics we call “human nature” make sense if we understand the EVOLUTIONARY FUNCTION they SERVE
evolutionary theory: psychological mechanisms
characteristically human functions that allow us to deal effectively with common human problems/needs
through natural selection, mechanisms that increased the chances of human survival and reproduction have been retained
those that failed to do so have not been retained
examples of psychological mechanisms
- innate fear of strangers
- anger
- group and attachment formation
- compassion
how can anxiety be explained by evolutionary theory?
it isn’t beneficial - it’s an unpleasant emotional state, something people want to avoid
almost always problematic - interferes with ability to learn new tasks, remember info, perform sexually…
answer this question by looking at WHAT CAUSES ANXIETY
what causes anxiety?
primary thing: SOCIAL EXCLUSION
all humans have strong need for group belonging and relationships
so when we experience exclusion or rejection from social groups, we suffer GREAT DISTRESS
info that even HINTS that SOMEDAY we MAY be REJECTED by others is often enough to bring on anxiety
social exclusion explanation of anxiety fits nicely…
with evolutionary personality theory
primitive people lived tgt in small groups - more likely to survive and reproduce in such circumstances
isolated people = more susceptible to injury, illness, lack of shelter, limited resources = less able to mate and raise offspring
SO, anything that MOTIVATES people to avoid behaviours that might lead to their exclusion from the group would help the species survive
ANXIETY SERVES THIS PURPOSE
evolutionary explanation: the types of behaviour that lead to social exclusion are typically those that…
impair the survival of the species
ie. adultery, aggression, taking valuable resources from others
not all children approach learning…
the same way
they’re born with different temperaments
ie. diffs in eagerness to learn, in ability to focus
ie. inhibited versus uninhibited children
3 basic temperament patterns among elementary school kids
- easy child
- difficult child
- slow-to-warm-up child
easy child
eagerly approaches new situations
is adaptive
generally positive in mood
difficult child
difficulty adapting to new environments
often in a negative mood
slow-to-warm-up child
similar to inhibited children
tend to withdraw from unfamiliar situations
slow to adapt to new academic tasks and new activities
6 year study of elementary school kids found that __% of them could be placed into…
33%
one of the three categories (easy, difficult, slow to warm up)
elementary school kids 3 categories type percentages
easy: 40%
difficult: 10%
slow-to-warm-up: 15%
temperament diffs affect how children do in school
easy children get better grades and better teacher evaluations
difficult and slow to warm up children perform more poorly
differences are found on standardized achievement tests
is temperament related to intelligence?
no
how does temperament affect a child’s academic performance?
- some temperaments = more compatible with requirements of typical classroom
^ ie. attentive, adaptable and persistent will do better than short on attention, easily distracted and slow to adapt
- student’s behaviour evokes responses from teacher - means that opportunities for learning/achievement vary based on child temperament
^ attentive and eager student will be rewarding for teacher to work with, while easily distracted and withdrawn student will be frustrating and demanding
- teachers sometimes misinterpret temperamental diffs in their students - colours their responses to students and skews subsequent achievement
^ slow to warm up kids may be seen as unmotivated or unintelligent
^ highly active students may be seen as troublemakers
because inhibited children are less likely to get help when they need it…
generally receive less attention from their teachers
unintentionally, teachers pay more attention to and work more closely to some kids than others
case study: elementary school student who approached schoolwork with high-intensity, high-persistence style
long attention span
preferred to spend extensive amount of time on one task before moving onto the next
BUT the teacher’s schedule rarely allowed for this
boy got upset when his studies were interrupted
teacher interpreted these reactions as indicating an UNDERLYING PERSONALITY DISORDER
but problem was resolved when parent transferred boy to a diff school with diff teaching style
matching temperament and teaching - what question should we be asking?
“what kind of ENVIRONMENT and PROCEDURES are most conducive to learning for THIS student, given his or her temperament?”
^ reflects the thinking behind what some researchers call the “goodness of fit” model
goodness of fit model
according to this model, how well a child does in school is partly a function of HOW WELL the learning environment MATCHES the child’s “capabilities, characteristics and styles of behaving”
optimal amount of learning can occur IF lessons/assignments are PRESENTED in way that matches child’s learning style
teachers find fewer adjustment problems when…
they ADAPT their teaching style in consideration of the child’s temperament
teachers who match style with temperament not only increase the child’s chances of academic success…
they also contribute to the child’s feelings of SELF WROTH
children who do poorly at school tend to BLAME THEMSELVES
^ these feelings are often reinforced by parents/teachers who accuse child of not trying/believe the child can’t do it
resulting DOWNWARD SPIRAL of SELF ESTEEM adds to children’s academic difficulties
when people engage in reflective thought, they tend to…
look off to one side
some people consistently look RIGHT, while others look LEFT
direction in which people look when contemplating may be general indicator of brain activity patterns psychologists associate with emotion
physiological measures used to measure aspects of personality
physiological indicators of arousal
a) heart rate
b) respiration
c) galvanic skin response
hormones, neurotransmitters, immune systems, respiration, automatic muscle reflexes, enzymes in the blood
neuroimaging techniques
a) fMRI
b) PET
electroencephalograph (EEG)
measures ELECTRICAL ACTIVITY in diff parts of human brain
small electrodes = attached to head using hair clips or elastics
useful for several reasons
- procedure is EASY, NOT HARMFUL/uncomfortable
- allows recording of brain activity in VERY QUICK INTERVALS
quickness of EEG measurements
some EEG instruments can measure brain activity within MILLISECONDS
^ this sensitivity = particularly important when looking at emotions, which often CHANGE VERY RAPIDLY
how are EEG data described?
in terms of CYCLES PER SECOND, or waves
ALPHA WAVES: particularly useful for research on personality and emotion
EEG data: the lower the alpha wave activity…
the MORE ACTIVATION in that region of the brain
alpha wave levels where in the cerebral hemisphere are particularly useful in understanding individual differences in emotion?
in the ANTERIOR/FRONT of the cerebral hemisphere
this region has considerable connections with parts of brain that REGULATE EMOTIONS
cerebral asymmetry
anterior region of a person’s RIGHT cerebral hemisphere often shows DIFF ACTIVITY LEVEL than the anterior region of the LEFT side
diff patterns of cerebral asymmetry = linked to DIFFS in the EMOTIONAL EXPERIENCE
higher activation in the left versus left hemisphere…
LEFT = associated with POSITIVE moods
RIGHT = associated with NEGATIVE moods
watching emotion-arousing films EEG study
showed Ps emotional clips and measured brain activity using EEG
when experiencing HAPPINESS (as determined by facial expressions) activity in LEFT hemisphere increased
when experiencing DISGUST, there was more activity in the RIGHT hemisphere
infants show higher left hemisphere activity when…
smiling
when their mothers reached down to pick them up
when they heard laughter
when they tasted something sweet
(because these toddlers were under one years old, researchers argued the association between cerebral asymmetry and emotion is something we’re born with)
most people typically have higher activation…
in one hemisphere than the other
EVEN in a relatively nonemotional RESTING state
but, WHICH HEMISPHERE displays the higher activity level is NOT THE SAME for everyone
cerebral asymmetry and individual differences
when RESTING
some people have higher activity in the LEFT hemisphere and others have more RIGHT hemisphere activity
differences in cerebral asymmetry tend to be FAIRLY STABLE over time
because left and right hemispheric activity is associated with positive and negative moods, can we use EEG data to predict differences in emotion?
yes
people with higher level of LEFT hemisphere activity were MORE RESPONSIVE to POSITIVE MOOD FILMS
whereas people with higher RIGHT hemisphere activity REACTED MORE to the films that produced NEGATIVE MOODS
cerebral asymmetry and mood in infants
10 month old babies were identified as having either higher left or right hemisphere activity when resting
babies were then divided into those who CRIED and those who DIDN’T CRY when separated from their moms
CRIERS tended to have HIGHER RIGHT HEMISPHERE ACTIVITY, whereas non-criers were those with higher left hemisphere activity
initial explanations of the findings of cerebral asymmetry
initially, researchers explained results in terms of THRESHOLDS for POSITIVE and NEGATIVE MOOD
speculated that those higher in RIGHT hemisphere activity REQUIRE LESS NEGATIVE EVENT to experience FEAR/SADNESS
^ minor disappointment/rude remark might be enough to push them over the threshold into a negative emotional state
whereas people with higher LEFT hemisphere activity may require a LESS POSITIVE event before they experience HAPPINESS
^ enjoyable convo or good song might be enough to trigger pleasant emotions
but subsequent research findings have caused psychologists to RETHINK relationship between cerebral asymmetry and emotions
instead of looking at positive/negative emotions, now psychologists describe the diffs in terms of APPROACH and WITHDRAWAL TENDENCIES
find LEFT hemisphere activity is related to MOVEMENT TOWARDS the source of the emotion
RIGHT hemisphere activity is related to MOVEMENT AWAY
according to new explanation, higher right hemisphere activity is associated with…
sadness because depression is essentially an effort to WITHDRAW from whatever is causing the emotion
(new explanation) higher left hemisphere activity is associated with…
joy because happiness DRAWS US TOWARDS the source
of the emotion
anger: support for new explanation of cerebral asymmetry
(recall: new explanation looks at diffs in approach and withdrawal tendencies)
ANGER is associated with HIGHER LEFT hemisphere activity
although anger is a NEGATIVE emotion like depression, ANGRY PEOPLE TEND TO APPROACH or even attack the source of their distress
do differences in hemispheric activity level play a role in the development of emotional disorders?
some findings suggest that they may
depressed participants show more right-side activation than non-depressed ones
study examining EEG patterns in people who currently weren’t depressed but who had suffered from previous bouts of depression
these individuals had LESS LEFT HEMISPHERE ACTIVITY in the ANTERIOR REGION of the brain when resting
compared to group of Ps who had never suffered from depression
these previously depressed individuals may have had a PHYSIOLOGICALLY BASED VULNERABILITY to experience bouts of depression
if cerebral asymmetry is a marker for greater vulnerability to emotional disorders, can we use EEG patterns to predict who is likely to suffer from these disorders in the future?
yes
study measured cerebral symmetry in group of students with no history of emotional problems
students were then interviewed every 4 months for the next 3 years to determine if they’d suffered from a significant depression episode
those with higher right-side activation = more likely to experience a depressive episode during this time
cerebral asymmetry has been used in mood swing sufferers to predict…
who develops bipolar disorder
right-handed people who typically glance left when engaged in reflective thought…
are likely to show higher level of right hemisphere activation when resting
those who glance to the right are likely to be higher in left-hemisphere activity
so, which way you look during a reflective moment may be a telltale sign of your proclivity to experience certain emotions over others
strengths of the biological approach
- provides BRIDGE between study of PERSONALITY and discipline of BIOLOGY
^ psychologists ignored biology for far too long
- identified some realistic PARAMETERS for psychologists interested in BEHAVIOUR CHANGE
^ ie. optimal classroom conditions, parenting principles
- most of its advocates are ACADEMIC PSYCHOLOGISTS with strong interest in TESTING ideas through RESEARCH
^ lots of empirical support has been generated
^ open to modifying their theories after research finding results
criticisms of the biological approach
- sometimes face limits on ABILITY to TEST their ideas
^ esp evolutionary psychologists - often left to argue from weak position of analogy and deduction
^ and we can think of an adaptive function for nearly every human attribute - can’t be truly tested/verified
- critics challenge evolutionary theory’s assumption that EVERY characteristic must serve a SURVIVAL FUNCTION
^ totally possible that a characteristic evolved that had NO IMPACT on survival, or that even HURT likelihood of survival
- criticism centered at theory and research on TEMPERAMENT
^ lack of an agreed upon model
^ one model identifies 3 temperaments, and others highlight 7, 5, 9 dimensions
^ also use diff names ie. is an “inhibited” child the same as a “slow-to-warm-up” child?
- offers FEW suggestions for personality change - NO schools of PSYCHOTHERAPY based on this perspective
