Textbook Chapter 13 Flashcards

Question

behaviourists and genetics

Answer 1

don't deny the influence of genetics but downplay its importance relative to conditioning

Answer 2

begins with stimulus-response (SR) association ie. want to eat when smell chocolate ie. become nervous when on a high object UCS: unconditioned stimulus - meat powder in Pavlov's experiment (causes response without conditioning) UCR: unconditioned response - salivation in Pavlov then pair the UCS with a CS (new, conditioned stimulus) - bell in Pavlov eventually, the CS will come to elicit the response (CR) all by itself

Answer 3

when you use the new SR association to condition yet another SR association process of building one conditioned SR association on another ie. pair green light with Pavlov's bell tone - soon the dogs would start to salivate when the green light came on

Answer 4

probably aren't aware of many SR associations that influence behaviour research suggests that food, clothing, friend preferences can be determined this way

Answer 5

1. for SR association to persist, the UCS and CS must be paired occasionally or otherwise reinforced ^ extinction 2. two events presented together won't always produce an association ^ certain stimuli are easily associable, while others prove fairly impossible

Answer 6

gradual disappearance of the conditioned SR association happens when the UCS and CS fail to continue to be paired together

Answer 7

"happiness is a byproduct of operant reinforcement. the things which make us happy are the things which reinforce us"

Answer 8

put stray cats into "puzzle boxes" to escape box and obtain piece of fish, hungry cats had to engage in particular actions before long, learned what they had to do to get their reward

Answer 9

law of effect

Answer 10

behaviours are more likely to be repeated if they lead to satisfying consequences

Answer 11

behaviours the organism emits spontaneously if one of these behaviours if always reinforced, its frequency will increase

Answer 12

concerns the effect certain kinds of consequences have on frequency of behaviour REINFORCEMENT: consequence that increases the frequency of a behaviour that precedes it PUNISHMENT: one that decreases frequency of preceding behaviour

Answer 13

the PERSON and the SITUATION ie. if you're hungry, strawberry ice cream is prob reinforcing. but if you are cold or don't like ice cream, it's prob punishing

Answer 14

1. positive reinforcement 2. negative reinforcement

Answer 15

increases behaviour frequency through presenting a reward

Answer 16

increases behaviour frequency through REMOVING SMTG UNPLEASANT when behaviour occurs ie. rats learn to turn off an electric shock by pulling a string will quickly learn to pull the string

Answer 17

1. extinction 2. punishment

Answer 18

strategy used to decrease behaviours cease reinforcement and thereby allow behaviour to extinguish

Answer 19

strategy used to eliminate unwanted behaviours frequency of behaviour lowers when it's followed by an AVERSIVE STIMULUS (like an electric shock or removal of a positive stimulus)

Answer 20

1. DOESN'T TEACH appropriate behaviours (can only decrease freq of undesired ones) 2. to be effective, must be delivered IMMEDIATELY and CONSISTENTLY ^ should be intense and administered each time behaviour occurs 3. can have NEGATIVE SIDE EFFECTS ^ ie. child who's punished for hitting toy against window may stop playing with toys altogether 4. aversive feelings of punishment may be ASSOCIATED with PERSON DOING THE PUNISHING 5. undesirable behaviours may be learned through MODELLING ^ children who are spanked may learn that aggression is okay as long as you're bigger and stronger 6. creates negative emotions like FEAR and ANXIETY

Answer 21

punishment because of the 6 side effects

Answer 22

a behaviour dan only be reinforced after it is emitted if there are barriers to enacting a behaviour (ie. because it's foreign/new/hard) then it can't be reinforced

Answer 23

successive approximations of the desired behaviour are reinforced ie. instead of jumping straight into getting a patient to participate in art therapy everyday... reward them first for getting out of bed on time, and then for sitting with other patients, and then for entering the art therapy room... and so on

Answer 24

complex behaviours ie. like reading - start first by reinforcing learning letters, then words, then sentences

Answer 25

helps explain why personality characteristics generalize across situations when a response is generalized from the original stimulus to new stimuli means that not every situation requires learning a new response

Answer 26

happens if responses to certain types of stimuli are not reward ie. pigeon is rewarded for picking at red stimuli, but not for orange ones ie. polite child will learn to discriminate between people who are friendly and people who aren't ie. a tennis player will learn to make fine discriminations between those actions that lead to reinforcement (ie. winning a shot)

Answer 27

enthusiasm began to wane psychologists question assertion that all human learning is result of classical or operant conditioning idea that behaviourism was too limited in the scope of its subject matter thus began the transition to SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Answer 28

"the prospects for survival would be slim indeed if one could learn only from the consequences of trial and error" "one does not teach children to swim, adolescents to drive automobiles, and novice medical students to perform surgery by having them discover the requisite behaviour from the consequences of their successes and failures"

Answer 29

why couldn't internal events like thoughts and attitudes be conditioned the same way as overt behaviours?

Answer 30

notion of BEHAVIOUR-ENVIRONMENT-BEHAVIOUR INTERACTIONS

Answer 31

not only does the environment influence our behaviour but that behaviour then determines the kind of environment we find ourselves in which can then influence behaviour ie. the way people treat you (environment) is often result of how you act (behaviour) and how you act is partly result of how people treat you (environment)

Answer 32

their own reinforcers it's rewarding to live up to your internal standards/to reach a personal goal even if no one else knows about it

Answer 33

one of the most influential social learning theorists

Answer 34

cause of human behaviours are far MORE COMPLEX than those of lower animals he introduced several "unobservable" concepts to account for human behaviour and personality

Answer 35

each response option's BEHAVIOUR POTENTIAL

Answer 36

the likelihood that a given behaviour will occur in a particular situation each possible response has a diff behaviour potential

Answer 37

1. expectancy 2. reinforcement value

Answer 38

one of the things that determines a behaviour potential estimates of what results will come from a certain behaviour/what you expect to happen we base our expectancies largely on how things turned out other times we were in this situation

Answer 39

ie. if you always do well after studying all night, you'll develop an expectancy of receiving the reward again ie. if you never enjoy yourself playing softball, the expectancy of being rewarded again is slim

Answer 40

agree that we're more likely to engage in a behaviour if it's been reinforced but Rotter and behaviourists DISAGREE on HOW TO EXPLAIN the behaviour 1. behaviourists say that operant conditioning association or habit has been STRENGTHENED by an earlier experience 2. Rotter argues that the MORE OFTEN people are reinforced for a certain behaviour, the STRONGER THEIR EXPECTANCY that the behaviour will be reinforced in the future

Answer 41

rely on GENERALIZED EXPECTANCIES in these situations

Answer 42

beliefs we hold about HOW OFTEN our actions TYPICALLY lead to reinforcements or punishments (Rotter) each of us can be placed along a CONTINUUM called LOCUS OF CONTROL

Answer 43

continuum that applies to generalized expectancies each of us can be placed somewhere on this continuum ONE END: individuals with an extreme INTERNAL ORIENTATION ^ believe that most of what happens to them is because of their OWN ACTIONS/ATTRIBUTES OTHER END: individuals with an extreme EXTERNAL ORIENTATION ^ believe that much of what happens to them is result of forces OUTSIDE THEIR CONTROL (ie. chance, powerful others)

Answer 44

one of Rotter's ideas of what determines a behaviour potential degree to which we PREFER one reinforcer over another 1. varies from situation to situation ie. if we're lonely, social contact holds higher reinforcement value than when we aren't 2. each of us have reinforcers we consistently value more than others ie. placing job over family/recreation - "driven personalities"

Answer 45

behaviour potential = expectancy + reinforcement value

Answer 46

read Adler and Freud when he was in elementary school loved psychology but majored in chemistry because "there was no profession of psychology that I knew of" but then he started going Adler's lectures and they became close re-invigorated interest in psych studied under Kurt Lewin at Uni of Iowa got his PhD served as psychologist in army and air force during WWII then became a pro academic psychologist at Ohio State

Answer 47

Albert Bandura

Answer 48

behaviourists' depiction of human beings as PASSIVE RECIPIENTS of whatever stimuli life throws their way people possess other capacities that are distinctly human by reducing process through which people grow and change to the way a rat learns to press a bar, struct behaviourists OVERLOOK some of the MOST IMPORTANT CAUSES of human behaviour

Answer 49

because its a move away from strict behaviourism and effort to address the overlooked causes of behaviour which generally involved THINKING and SYMBOLIC PROCESSING OF INFO

Answer 50

argues for BOTH internal and external causes of behaviour but behaviour isn't determined exclusively by either or by a simple combo concept of RECIPROCAL DETERMINISM

Answer 51

external determinants of behaviour (rewards/punishments) and internal determinants (beliefs, thoughts, expectations) are part of SYSTEM of INTERACTING INFLUENCES they affect not only behaviour but the various parts of the system to EACH PART OF THE SYSTEM (behaviours, external factors, internal factors) INFLUENCES EACH OF THE OTHER PARTS

Answer 52

(refresher: each part of system - behaviours, internal and external factors - influences each of the other parts) 1. someone you don't like asks you to play racquetball ^ internal expectation makes you want to say no 2. but they offer to buy you a new, nice racket ^ external inducement may be powerful enough for you to agree 3. and then you have a really great game ^ behaviour reinforces positivity the behaviour has changed your internal expectations, which will affect future behaviour, and so on...

Answer 53

traditional behaviourism: unidirectional relationship between external stimulus and reinforcers reciprocal determinism: bidirectional arrows between behaviour, external factors and internal factors

Answer 54

thoughts, beliefs, expectations

Answer 55

rewards and punishments

Answer 56

depends on the strength of the variables at times, environmental forces are most powerful, while at others internal forces dominate ie. both high and low self esteem people will flee a burning building - so environmental factors can override individual factors in certain circumstances

Answer 57

1. use SYMBOLS and FORETHOUGHT as guides for future action ^ instead of pure trial and error, we imagine possible outcomes, calculate probabilities, set goals, develop strategies ^ all in our minds, without engaging in random actions/waiting to see which will be rewarded or punished 2. most behaviour is performed in the ABSNCE of EXTERNAL REINFORCEMENTS/PUNISHMENTS ^ daily actions are controlled by SELF-REGULATION ^ we work towards SELF-IMPOSED GOALS with internal rewards ^ also use SELF-PUNISHMENTS ^ means that Bandura challenges behaviourist notion that if there's an external reward, people will do just about anything

Answer 58

Bandura argues most behaviour is performed in absence of external reinforcements/punishments daily actions are controlled by SELF-REGULATION 1. we work towards self-imposed goals with INTERNAL REWARDS ^ rewards come from feelings of accomplishment and self-worth 2. self-regulation also includes SELF-PUNISHMENT ^ when we fail to maintain personal standards, often degrade/feel bad about ourselves ie. may chastise yourself for being rude to stranger or not sticking to your diet, even when no one else seemed to notice

Answer 59

challenges assumption that people will perform just about any action if the environmental contingencies are altered appropriately "anyone who attempted to change a pacifist into an aggressor or a devout religionist into an atheist would quickly come to appreciate the existence of personal source of behavioural control"

Answer 60

concept of VICARIOUS or OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING in addition to classical and operant conditioning, we can learn by OBSERVING or READING or JUST HEARING about other people's actions

Answer 61

we can learn by observing, reading or just hearing about other people's actions many behaviours are TOO COMPLEX to be learned through SLOW PROCESS of reinforcement and punishment ie. don't teach pilots to fly by putting them in the cockpit and reinforcing correct behaviours and punishing incorrect ones ie. children would never learn to talk if separately reinforced for every utterance they made

Answer 62

LEARNING and PERFORMANCE behaviours learned through observation need not be performed ^ this clashes with traditional behaviourists, who maintain we CANNOT LEARN smtg WITHOUT ACTUALLY ENGAGING in that behaviour

Answer 63

in context of observational learning ie. you've seen people shoot a pistol in movies, and probably know how it works, without having actually done this yourself

Answer 64

lies in our EXPECTATIONS about the consequences ie. do you believe the action will be rewarded or punished? (internally or externally) these expectations come from observing others - models

Answer 65

Bobo doll study

Answer 66

nursery school kids watched TV program where adult model performed 4 novel aggressive acts on adult-size Bobo doll ^ pushed it on its side, sat on it, punched it, said "pow, right in the nose, boom" ^ then pommeled it on head with mallet, kicked it about the room, threw things at it children saw one of three endings to the film: 1. saw another adult REWARD the aggressor with soft drinks, candy, praise 2. saw model SPANKED and warned not to act aggressively again 3. given NO INFO about CONSEQUENCES of the behaviour then, children were left alone for 10 mins of free play time, with experimenter watching them - which of the acts would they perform SPONTANEOUSLY? then, each child was offered JUICE and TOYS for each of the aggressive acts they could perform for the EXPERIMENTER - has they LEARNED the responses from watching the model?

Answer 67

nearly all the kids could perform the behaviour WHEN ASLED but whether they chose to perform the behaviour when left alone DEPENDED ON CONSEQUENCES they EXPECTED ^ although all the children had LEARNED how to act aggressively, the ones who had SEEN THE MODEL REWARDED were significantly MORE LIEKLY to perform the behaviours than those who had seen the model punished

Answer 68

it's simple - presents a rational model of human nature can make sense of behaviours ie. employees work hard when properly reinforced, children stop fighting when aggressive behaviour is punished also presents ways to change/improve behaviours

Answer 69

seemingly 'ABNORMAL' behaviours are created through NORMAL conditioning procedures used classical conditioning to create fear of white rates in 11 month old baby, Little Albert what appeared to be an abnormal fear of white rats in infant could be explained by the PAST CONDITIONING of the child

Answer 70

Watson - display of how abnormal behaviours can follow from "normal" conditioning 1. began with stimulus-response association between a LOUD NOISE and FEAR found in most infants ^ whenever Watson would make the loud noise, Albert would cry/show fear 2. next Watson showed Albert a white rat each time the loud noise played 3. Albert soon responded to the white rat with fear responses (crying, crawling away)

Answer 71

because new associations formed through classical conditioning tend to extinguish once the pairing is removed ANSWER: operant conditioning may take over ie. 3 year old falls off a tall slide - experiences pain and fear ^ pain and fear re-emerge next time she approaches playground ^ anxiety increases as she gets close to slide ^ turns away from it to reduce her anxiety ACT OF AVOIDING THE SLIDE HAS BEEN REINFORCED THROUGH NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT ^ if this behaviour is reinforced a few more times, girl could develop a strong fear of slides ^ fear could then be generalized to fear of all high places - phobia

Answer 72

ie. 3 year old falls off a tall slide - experiences pain and fear ^ pain and fear re-emerge next time she approaches playground ^ anxiety increases as she gets close to slide ^ turns away from it to reduce her anxiety ACT OF AVOIDING THE SLIDE HAS BEEN REINFORCED THROUGH NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT ^ if this behaviour is reinforced a few more times, girl could develop a strong fear of slides ^ fear could then be generalized to fear of all high places - phobia

Answer 73

ie. little boy who has had many pleasant experiences with dogs is unlikely to develop a fear of the animal when one untrained dog snarls at him and bites him but contrastingly, a learning history with several small fearful experiences can make a person more vulnerable to developing a phobia when a very traumatic event occurs

Answer 74

socially anxious girl may have found the only escape from the criticism and ridicule she receives at home = to AVOID family contact as much as possible ^ negative reinforcement and then this behaviour GENERALIZES to other people

Answer 75

reinforcement ie. a socially anxious woman's efforts to initiate conversations are never rewarded, causing her to stop trying

Answer 76

treating problems through using more appropriate conditioning procedures differ from traditional therapies in several respects a) usually last for SEVERAL WEEKS (as compared to perhaps years) b) focus is on changing a FEW WELL-DEFINED BEHAVIOURS rather than changing the entire personality c) therapists often unconcerned with discovering WHERE the problem behaviour ORIGINATED ^ goal is simply to REPLACE it with more appropriate set of responses

Answer 77

ELIMINATE or REPLACE SR associations that cause clients problems use physical pairing of objects and reactions, but mental images can be classically conditioned too! ie. treatment of phobias pairs IMAGES of FEARED OBJECT with a RELAXING RESPONSE

Answer 78

often used to treat PHOBIAS old association between the feared stimulus and the fear response is REPLACED with a NEW ASSOCIATION between the stimulus and relaxation

Answer 79

1. create list of IMAGINED SCENES ranging from mildly arousing to highly anxiety provoking ie. fear of heights - begin with footstool, then to flight of stairs, then 8 foot ladder, then in small airplane 2. after clients complete RELAXATION TRAINING, they IMAGINE the scenes while they PRACTICE RELAXING ^ one step at a time, they move through each list item until they can imagine the scene without feeling anxious ^ in theory, the fear response is being replaced with a new response: relaxation

Answer 80

1. systematic desensitization 2. aversion therapy

Answer 81

another example of classical conditioning used to alter problem behaviours rid clients of UNDESIRABLE BEHAVIOURS by PAIRING AVERSIVE IMAGES with the behaviour ie. client trying to quit smoking - image of cigarette might be paired with images of becoming nauseated and vomiting

Answer 82

1. IDENTIFY the target behaviour and DEFINE it in operational terms ie. wanting to change a child who's "acting immature" - interview parents and teachers to figure out what specifically this means 2. determine BASELINE of BEHAVIOUR FREQUENCY ^ can't determine if you're reducing frequency if you don't have this comparison point 3. change the CONTINGENCIES ^ if it's an undesired behaviour, introduce punishment or reduce reinforcement (extinction) ^ if it's a desired behaviour 4. at same time, child should be REINFORCED for handing frustrating situations in APPROPRIATE way 5. FREQUENCY of TARGET BEHAVIOUR should be monitored throughout therapy

Answer 83

another type of operant conditioning used to treat psychological problems uses special equipment that provides INFO about SOMATIC PROCESSES ie. woman suffering from ANXIETY might use machine that tells her when she's TIGHTENING and RELAXING certain facial and back MUSCLES ^ she is OTHERWISE UNAWARE of this reaction ^ after several muscle relaxation sessions with IMMEDIATE FEEDBACK from machine, may LEARN to REDUCE TENSION on her own and thereby OVERCOME ANXIETY

Answer 84

woman with muscle tension was REINFORCED for producing the response that LOWERED her muscle tension as indicated by the machine she soon LEARNED to make the RELAXATION RESPONSE

Answer 85

the TENSION HEADACHE psychologists use ELECTROMYOGRAPHY MONITORS to inform clients about MUSCLE CONSTRICTION that they otherwise may be unaware of highly EFFECTIVE in reducing frequency, intensity, duration of tension headaches and relatively QUICK and EFFICIENT

Answer 86

blood pressure heart rate brain waves

Answer 87

often because of differences in SELF-EFFICACY the BELEIF that one can do something some can't kick habits simply because they believe they cannot

Answer 88

they make a CLEAR DECISION to EXPEND NECESSARY EFFORt distinction between OUCOME expectations and EFFICACY expectations

Answer 89

extent to which people believe actions will LEAD to a CERTAIN OUTCOME

Answer 90

extent to which people believe THEY CAN PERFORM the actions that will BRING ABOUT the particular outcome difference between being told something can happen and BELIEVING you can make it happen

Answer 91

1. may hold OUTCOME EXPECTATION that if you devote several hours to studying each night and abandon social life on weekends, you'll get GOOD GRADES this term 2. however, may also hold the EFFICACY EXPECTATION that you're INCAPABLE of such devoted work and sacrifice

Answer 92

EFFICACY expectation ie. students are unlikely to work hard for good grades if they don't think it's possible

Answer 93

four sources 1. enactive mastery experiences 2. vicarious experiences 3. verbal persuasion 4. physiological and affective states

Answer 94

source of efficacy expectations that can change behaviour SUCCESSFUL attempts to achieve outcome in the PAST ie. sky divers suddenly struck with fear tell themselves they've done this many times before without incident

Answer 95

can lead to LOW efficacy expectations ie. people with fear of heights who have never been able to climb a ladder without coming back down in a fit of anxiety will probably conclude they can't perform this behaviour

Answer 96

not as powerful as actual performances, but can also alter efficacy expectations seeing OTHER PEOPLE perform a behaviour WITHOUT ADVERSE CONSEQUENCES can lead us to believe we can do it too "if they can do it, so can I"

Answer 97

a less effective way of altering efficacy expectations ie. telling someone whose reluctant to stand up to their boss "you can do it" expectation will be easily crushed if actual performance isn't met with expected result

Answer 98

another way to change efficacy expectations ie. woman who gets anxious approaching men may find her HEART BEATS and PALMS SWEAT when she picks up the phone to ask a guy on a date ^ if she INTERPRET these physiological responses as signs of anxiety, may DECIDE SHE'S TOO NERVOUS to go through with it ^ BUT if she notices HOW CALM she is before dialing, she may DECIDE she's MORE COURAGEOUS than she realized

Answer 99

therapists arrange the situation so that the client is ALMOST GUARANTEED a SUCCESSFUL experience treatment is broken into SMALL STEPS that can be accomplished with only SLIGHT INCREASE in client's effort with each successful experience, client behaviours and beliefs strengthen

Answer 100

BEHAVIOUR PSYCHOLOGISTS explain successful systematic desensitization in terms of REPLACING OLD STIMULUS-RESPONSE bonds with NEW ONES SOCIAL-COGNITIVE therapists explain that guided mastery CHANGES EFFICACY EXPECTATIONS, leading to change in behaviour

Answer 101

play role in OVERCOMING WIDE VARIETY of PSYCH PROBLEMS - childhood depression - PTSD - test anxiety - phobias - excessive bereavement - academic achievement - job performance - exercise program persistence - weight loss - romantic relationships - heart attack rehabilitation

Answer 102

sign of some UNDERLYING CONFLICT... for behaviour therapists, the BEHAVIOUR IS THE PROBLEM therefore, OBJECTIVE and RELIABLE assessment of behaviour is crucial ^ must determine behaviour FREQUENCY and check about the events SURROUNDING the behaviour ie. does person smoke alone or with other people? do tantrums happen at a certain time of day?

Answer 103

variety of procedures (list from most to least common) 1. interview with client 2. direct observation 3. client self-monitoring 4. behavioural rating scales 5. interview with client's significant others 6. info from other professionals 7. role playing

Answer 104

used because therapist can't always be there to observe client behaviour so therapists CREATE a situation that RESEMBLES real-world setting in which the problem behaviour is likely to occur ie. stage a dance for clients suffering from acute shyness, ask a couple to enter a discussion that recently sparked a disagreement sometimes will ROLE PLAY

Answer 105

to have TWO or MORE observers INDEPENDENTLY CODE the SAME BEHAVIOURS if they agree on how often they count the target behaviour, can be confident the number is fairly accurate can also VIDEOTAPE the behaviour so that many diff judges can assess

Answer 106

(bias: observers may unintentionally see WHAT THEY WANT or EXPECT to see) to guard against this problem, should DEFINE BEHAVIOURS in a manner that MINIMIZES SUBJECTIVE JUDGMENT ie. use observers who don't know what the experimenter expects to find

Answer 107

sometimes direct observation is too costly and time consuming so clients can OBSERVE THEMSELVES ^ but clients frequently have DISTORTED IDEA of how often a behaviour occurs ^ and also important to understand the CIRCUMSTANCES SURROUNDING the behaviour

Answer 108

few clients provide accurate info about these variables FROM MEMORY so, therapists often ask clients to KEEP RECORDS of WHEN and WHERE they engage in certain behaviours

Answer 109

often therapeutic in itself to watch your own behaviour sometimes leads to improvements before the treatment has even started

Answer 110

clients may not want to admit they increased their smoking or lost their temper several times in one week so there are other assessment methods too

Answer 111

ie. useful for those unwilling to provide accurate info about themselves ie. useful for children ie. useful for those with severe psychological disorders ie. parents and teachers often record frequency of child's problem behaviours ie. nurses and aides do the same for patients

Answer 112

1. solid foundation in EMPIRICAL RESEARCH ^ most theorists relied on empirical data when developing and refining their theories 2. developed some useful and popular THERAPEUTIC PROCEDURES 3. social learning theories and social-cognitive theory ADDED COGNITIVE VARIABLES and expanded range of addressed phenomena 4. social learning theories allow us to understand THOUGHTS, EXPECTANCIES and VALUES along with BASIC BEHAVIOUR CONDITIONING principles within ONE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Answer 113

over other interventions 1. use of BASELINE DATA and OBJECTIVE CRITERIA for determining success or failure ^ other forms of therapy use subjective rating from therapist to determine therapy success/failure 2. quite useful for CHILDREN and EMOTIONALLY DISTURBED PATIENTS 3. relatively QUICK and EASY to administer ^ more people can benefit at lower cost than they can from psychoanalytic tactics

Answer 114

1. it's TOO NARROW in its description of human personality ^ esp with the Skinnerian brand of behaviourism - which rejects usefulness of looking at inner feelings/intuition ^ also doesn't give a lot of time to heredity 2. human beings are MORE COMPLEX than LAB ANIMALS used in behaviour research 3. may DISTORT the REAL THERAPY ISSUES when they reduce everything to observable behaviours ^ therapy issues can still persist even if certain observable behaviours are reduced

Answer 115

effects of extrinsic reinforcers on intrinsically motivated behaviour find that PAYING people to engage in a behaviour they ALREADY ENJOY results in REDUCTION of FREQUENCY of the behaviour seem to REDEFINE the behaviour as WORK instead of PLAY - and therefore LOSE INTEREST UNLESS REWARDED

Answer 116

punishment

Answer 117

negative reinforcement