Textbook Chapter 14 Flashcards
behaviourist applications to lifestyle issues examined in this chapter
- GENDER ROLES - understanding why we make certain gender-related choices requires examination of operant conditioning and observational learning
- impact of AGGRESSIVE MODELS on our behaviour - observational learning
- LEARNED HELPLESSNESS - classical conditioning
- individual differences in LOCUS OF CONTROL - social learning theory
why do women and men tend to behave in different ways?
biological diffs between the sexes plays a role
but BEHAVIOURISTS and SOCIAL LEARNING THEORISTS point to LIFELONG process of GENDER-ROLE SOCIALIZATION
children and adults ACQUIRE and MAINTAIN gender-appropriate behaviours largely through OPERANT CONDITIONING and OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
where can we see operant conditioning at work related to gendered behaviours?
whenever young children act in “gender-inappropriate” ways
ie. boys tease one another for crying, playing with dolls, showing interest in cooking or sewing
ie. boys are rewarded with camaraderie and parental nods for playing football and standing up to those who try to push them around
gender role operant conditioning starts young…
even before children can talk
parents speak/play differently with their daughters than they do with their sons
ie. 24 hours after birth, girls were rated as softer, finer-features, smaller, less attentive than sons
study examining choices parents made for boys and girls when child was less than 25 months old
- girls = more likely to receive dolls and toy furniture
^ wear pink
- boys = more likely to receive sports equipment, toy tools, trucks, cars
^ wear blue
- xmas requests - a few children asked their parents for gender atypical presents
^ these children were much less likely to get waht they wanted
by kindergarten, children are very aware of…
their gender role expectations
preschoolers choose the toys associated with their genders, and boy children explained their fathers wouldn’t approve of them playing with the girls’ toys
observational learning and gender roles
children learn expected behaviour through watching parents, neighbours, siblings, playmates, TV characters
PARENTS are most influential models when kids are YOUNG
LATER on, FRIENDS are more influential
children may recognize that men, but rarely women, work on mechanical things…
thus are likely to conclude that MEN ARE REWARDED for mechanical behaviour
but woman are not
thus boys = more likely to get involved with mechanical things - ANTICIPATING REWARDS - whereas GIRLS SEEK OUT OTHER ACTIVITIES
what terms did researchers originally use to reference gender-related trait groups?
masculinity and femininity
others argue we should use diff terms with MORE SPECIFIC and LESS EMOTIONALLY LOADED labels
ie. agency and communion
agency and communion
alternatives to the terms masculinity and femininity
AGENCY: independence, assertiveness, control
COMMUNION: attachment, cooperation, interpersonal connection
early scales to measure individual differences in gender-role behaviour were based on 2 assumptions…
- masculinity and femininity were assumed to rep TWO EXTREME POSITIONS on a continuum
- the more people’s gender-role BEHAVIOUR MATCHED the STEREOTYPE of their gender, the MORE PSYCHOLOGICALLY HEALTHY they were
assumptions of early masculinity-femininity scale: masculinity and femininity were assumed to rep TWO…
EXTREME POSITIONS on a continuum
^ considered opposites
^ the more you are of one, the less you are of the other
^ each of us can be placed somewhere along this continuum
assumptions of early masculinity-femininity scale - the more people’s gender-role BEHAVIOUR MATCHED the STEREOTYPE of their gender…
the MORE PSYCHOLOGICALLY HEALTHY they were
^ masculine men and feminine women were considered well adjusted
^ misalignment was seen as maladjustment - indicative of psychological disturbances
one of the og scales on the MMPI was…
a masculinity-femininity scale
initially researchers maintained that SCORING TOO FAR on ONE SIDE of this scale for one’s gender was INDICATIVE of PSYCH DISTURBANCES
what model model challenges the masculinity-femininity model?
androgyny model
triggered explosion of research on gender roles
androgyny model
begins by REJECTING NOTION that masculinity and femininity are opposites on a continuum
instead, they’re seen as SEPARATE TRAITS
^ people can be HIGH on BOTH traits, on ONLY ONE trait, or on NEITHER
^ they’re independent
androgyny model - fact that masculinity and femininity are independent means that…
knowing that someone is high in masculinity tells us nothing about where they score on femininity
evidence to support that masculinity and femininity are independent traits
women tend to INCREASE IN BOTH masculinity and femininity as they move through their MIDDLE ADULT YEARS
androgyny model challenges assumption that…
a person’s gender should match his or her gender “type” (traits)
maintain the MOST WELL-ADJUSTED PERSON is BOTH masculine and feminine - androgynous
^ well adjusted person must have the FLEXIBILITY to engage in masculine behaviour and feminine behaviours when the situation demands
androgyny model has __ categories
4: androgynous, feminine, masculine, undifferentiated
2 scales: one for masculinity, one for femininity
^ high to low for each
androgyny model: masculine
score high on masculinity
score low on femininity
androgyny model: feminine
score high on femininity
score low on masculinity
androgyny model: androgynous
score high on both masculinity and femininity
androgyny model: undifferentiated
score low on both masculinity and femininity
2 other explanation for relation between gender type and wellbeing
(first one is androgyny model which purports that possessing both masculine and feminine traits is important for wellbeing)
- congruence model
- masculinity model
congruence model
masculine men and feminine women are the most well adjusted
reflects sexism and old-fashioned attitudes, but a case can be made
pressure society puts on men and women to act in gender-appropriate ways - constant rewards and punishments
^ SOCIETY IS GEARED to give masculine men and feminine women most of the rewards in life
^ masculine women and feminine men face SOCIAL REJECTION and RIDICULE
do researchers find support for the congruence model?
(refresher: congruence model suggests that masc men and fem women are the best psychologically adjusted because of societal rewards/punishments/pressures)
researchers RARELY FIND SUPPORT for this model
masculinity model
maintains that being MASCULINE IS KEY to MENTAL HEATH
society is still geared toward admiring and rewarding traditional “masculine” traits
ie. men are INDEPENDENT, ACHIEVING, POWERFUL, LEADERS
^ makes sense those possessing these traits might accomplish more and feel better about themselves
women don’t have to abandon their femininity, but may need some traditionally masc attribute to be successful
does research support the masculinity model?
yes
masc people = likely to use DIRECT, PROBLEM-FOCUSED strategies
^ better able to DEAL WITH STRESSORS than those low in masculinity
particularly STRONG when looking at relationship between GENDER TYPE and SELF ESTEEM - people who possess traditionally masculine attributes also feel good about themselves
does research support the androgyny model?
yes
ie. when TAKING CARE of BABY, fem and androgynous people do better than masculine people
ie. fem people = easily swayed by opinions of others, while masc and androgynous people better RESIST CONFORMITY pressures
ie. those who possess ONLY MASC or FEM characteristics often do poorly when faced with STRESSFUL SITUATIONS where taking ACTION and SEEKING COMFORT from others is beneficial
overall support for androgyny model is…
mixed
androgyny doesn’t always translate into sense of wellbeing or high self-esteem
androgyny, congruence and masculinity models: takeaway
- very little research supports the congruence model
- inconsistent findings may reflect way masc and fem are measured
^ ie. masc traits on scales are often more desirable (self-reliant, ambitious) than fem ones (gullible, shy) - and people who choose more flattering self-descriptions have higher self-esteem than those who choose less-desirable fem terms
- some aspects of healthy personality are related to masc (stress management, personal achievement) while others (good interpersonal relationships) aren’t
do people prefer feminine, masculine or androgynous people in their interpersonal relationships?
generally, ANDROGYNOUS character sketches are preferred to masc or fem or undifferentiated
androgynous folks are said to be…
a) more popular
b) more interesting
c) better adjusted
d) more competent
e) more intelligent
f) more successful
when college students are asked to estimate desirability of hypothetical romantic partners…
BOTH men and women
showed preferences for the ANDROGYNOUS person
experiment of gender type preferences SETUP
researchers created 4 types of male-female pairs:
a) masc man and fem woman
b) androgynous woman and masc man
c) androgynous man and fem woman
d) two androgynous people
left the pairs alone in a room for 5 mins - could talk or simply wait
recorded interactions with hidden camera
asked to rate conversation enjoyment afterwards
experiment of gender type preferences RESULTS
masc men and fem women pairs enjoyed their conversations the least
they TALKED to each other LESS, looked at each other less, used fewer EXPRESSIVE gestures, SMILED and LAUGHED less than those in the other convos
reasons for why masc men and fem women combos don’t actually make the ideal couple
- masc emphasizes control, self-monitoring, self-restraint
- fem emphasizes interpersonal warmth, actively expressing feelings
this combo doesn’t work out well
long term relationships and masc men and fem women
research doesn’t support relationship success for these pairings in the long term
HIGHEST level of relationship satisfaction = in people married to someone with FEM characteristics
^ people with either a feminine or androgynous spouse
marrying someone lacking in feminine characteristics (masc or undifferentiated) may lead to UNHAPPY marriage
what is it that makes feminine and androgynous people preferable partners?
- TRAITS
^ affectionate, compassionate, sensitive to other’s needs, better able to express feelings and understand those of others
- MORE AWARE OF and BETTER AT EXPRESSING ROMANTIC FEELINGS
^ have sensitivity and understanding needed for intimacy
^ and assertiveness/willingness to take risks needed to make things happen
- COMMUNICATE WELL
^ fem/androg better able to resolve problems and avoid unnecessary disputes
why might androgynous people make the best partners?
because they have a mix of both emotion SENSITIVITY and EXPRESSIVENESS
unmitigated communion
taking communion (interacting with others in a caring and compassionate way) to the EXTREME
so concerned with taking care of others that they tend to SACRIFICE their OWN NEEDS/INTERESTS
^ put own career asides to focus on friend’s, spouse’s, child’s needs
typically includes LOW MASCULINITY
unmitigated communion is associated with…
- low MASCULINITY
- difficulty ASSERTING oneself
- FEAR of EXPRESSING feelings that might lead to CONFLICT
- vulnerability being EXPLOITED
people high in unmitigated communion tend to score low on… and high on…
LOW on measures of SELF-ESTEEM and WELLBEING
view their PERSONAL VALUE in terms of WHAT OTHERS THINK OF THEM
^ makes self-worth fragile and highly vulnerable to external events
HIGH on scores of DEPRESSION
unmitigated communion and depression study
collected measures of unmitigated communion from group of people at age 31
contacted them again at 41 and assessed their level of depression
for both men and women, high scores on unmitigated communion predicted higher levels of depression 10 years later
^ because women are higher in unmitigated communion than men, these findings suggest one reason for higher rates of depression found in women
unmitigated communion and health issues
may cause people to NEGLECT THEIR OWN NEEDS at time when self-attention is called for
ie. resting, eating well, going to rehabilitation sessions etc take backseat to family caretaking
ie. high unmitigated communion was linked with poor psychological and physical health among women diagnosed with BREAST CANCER
ie. high unmitigated communion was linked to more psychological distress in those with RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS
ie. also linked to more depression and higher anxiety in adolescents diagnose with DIABETES (which requires lots of personal monitoring and treatment)
unmitigated agency
act NARCISSISTICALLY, focus on THEMSELVES at the EXPENSE of OTHERS
often results in STRAINED and UNPLEASANT INTERACTIONS with others
creates problems for those who have to interact with those high in unmitigated agency too - so presents problem for them when they need support from others
what happens when someone high in unmitigated agency encounters health problems?
in addition to helping with practical needs, other people can provide them emotional support and encouragement
BUT people high in unmitigated agency are RELUCTANT to SEEK or RECEIVE HELP from others
so when they become ill they don’t do as well
observational learning of aggression: aggressive acts and movies
multiple school shooters saying they’d been inspired bt movies ie. Fight Club, The Basketball Diaries
Boyz ‘n the Hood movie - several shootings occurred at the theatre
Taxi Driver inspired Ronald Reagan assassination attempt
simple exposure to an aggressive model isn’t enough to turn us into violent people - why, then…
why do individuals sometimes imitate aggression? (most of the time they don’t)
Bandura has an answer to this
Bandura on why people sometimes imitate aggression
observational learning and performance consists of FOUR INTERRELATED PROCESSES
must go through EACH 4 STEPS before exposure to aggression leads them to act aggressively
- must ATTEND to the aggressive action
- must REMEMBER the info
- must ENACT what they’ve seen
- must EXPECT REWARDS will be forthcoming
Bandura’s 4 steps that must precede aggression
- ATTEND to the aggressive action
- REMEMBER the info
- ENACT what they’ve seen
- expect REWARDS will be forthcoming
Bandura’s 4 steps to aggression: ATTEND
must attend to SIGNIFICANT FEATURES of model’s behaviour
children have prob seen so many punches/aggressive things that only the ESPECIALLY GRAPHIC/SPECTACULAR ONES will grab their attention
viewer’s MENTAL STATE also impacts their ATTENTION to the aggression
viewer’s mental state and attention to TV/movie aggression
when children were FRUSTRATED, were more likely to pay attention to an aggressive model
ties back to relationship between frustration and aggression
Bandura’s 4 steps to aggression: REMEMBER
must also REMEMBER info about the model’s behaviour
must be QUITE GRIPPING to remember it
although most aggressive acts we witness fade from memory quite fast, others don’t
PRACTICE and MENTAL REHEARSAL can keep the action fresh in our minds
remembering aggressive modelling: practice and mental rehearsal…
can keep the action fresh in our minds
ie. kids who play with toy guns and plastic combat equipment may EMBED the actions of their aggressive heroes PERMANENTLY into their memories
aggressive recall study with grade-school kids
- researchers asked children HOW MUCH THEY LIKED each of the aggressive ACTS they saw on VIDEOTAPE
- also determined WHICH TOYS used by the aggressive models each child LIKEd
- then observed them for 5 mins in a room containing all equipment needed to IMITATE the acts they’d seen
- children were MOST LIKELY TO IMITATE the aggression when it was an ACT THEY LIKED and when it was performed with a TOY THEY LIKED
ARGUED THESE ARE THE ACTS THAT THE KIDS REMEMBER
aggressive recall study with grade-school kids: why were the boys more aggressive than the girls?
because they liked and recalled aggressive behaviour more
Bandura’s 4 steps to aggression: ENACT
distinction between learning and performance
- sometimes we don’t enact a behaviour because WE CAN’T PERFORM IT
ie. martial arts
- sometimes we don’t enact a behaviour because we LACK THE OPPORTUNITY to carry it out
ie. don’t have access to a gun/aren’t in sitch where gun would be useful
Bandura’s 4 steps to aggression: EXPECT REWARDS
to engage in aggressive act, must expect it won’t end in punishment
aggressive boys = particularly attracted to what they saw as POSITIVE CONSEQUENCES of aggression
^ like controlling other children
^ they weren’t concerned about other potentially negative consequences (like causing suffering or being rejected by classmates)
where do aggressive children develop expectancies…
of rewards to aggressive behaviour?
(while simultaneously not seeing potential for punishments?)
learn from models and what is likely to happen to us as result of imitating them (expectancy)
ie. see an AGGRESSIVE MODEL DECLARED A HERO and praised
ie. but if model is arrested or hurt by someone even MORE AGGRESSIVE, will probably anticipate punishment
aggressive children typically learn what consequences to expect…
by watching children THEIR AGE or SLIGHTLY OLDER
if older child who pushes/punches get his choice of toys first, there’s a good chance the behaviour will be imitated
if parents punish children for fighting, they communicate that bigger and stronger people can do what they want - may be why corporal punishment is related to more aggression in children
why might corporal punishment be related to greater aggression in children?
because parents who punish children for fighting communicate that bigger and stronger people can do what they want
what percentage of American kids/adolescents had witnessed at least one violent act in the previous year?
33%
the more children are exposed to violence firsthand, the more likely it is they will turn to violence themselves
over time, see violence as NORMAL - as a common/appropriate way to get what they want
people = more likely to imitate aggressive behaviour that is portrayed as…
JUSTIFIED
more likely to imitate superhero who smacks around a bad guy FOR GOOD OF SOCIETY than for supervillain who acts violently for his own good
children see that villain = punished, BUT also see GOOD GUY’S AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR REWARDED
before leaving elementary school, average American child will view about…
8000 murders
more than 100 000 other acts of violence
on tv
research findings pertaining to link between viewing aggression in media and performing aggression
vast majority find CAUSAL LINK IRREFUTABLE
- viewing aggression increases likelihood of acting aggressively
^ esp over a short time span
^ most of this data comes from controlled lab experiments
controlled lab experiments examining link between watching and performing aggressive behaviours
- Ps watch segment for VIOLENT or AROUSING BUT NON-VIOLENT program/movie
- then are given OPPORTUNITY to ACT AGGRESSIVELY towards another individual
^ often through loud NOISES or painful SHOCKS they believe will HURT
RESULTS: in almost all cases, Ps who watch the violent clips act MORE AGGRESSIVELY than those who see the nonviolent clip
limitations of lab research on aggression observation and performance
- effects are short-lived
- opportunity to hurt someone provided by experimenter is unique
how much do these studies really tell us about impact of aggressive movies/tv on real life behaviour?
longterm field studies to gauge impact of exposure to violence/aggressive behaviour
researchers use AMOUNT and TYPE of tv kids watched at one point in their lives to PREDICT HOW AGGRESSIVE the children will be at a later date
find SIGNIFICANT EVIDENCE indicating that watching a lot of aggressive TV leads to MORE AGGRESSION in children and adults
seriousness of criminal act at age 30 was directly related to…
amount of TV they watched at age 8
the more TV the 8 year old had watched, the more severe the crime they committed 22 years later at age 30
violence over next 8 years as function of tv viewing at 14
measured AMOUNT of TV girls/boys watched at age 14
also measured INCIDENCES of AGGRESSION over the next 8 years
percentages of men/women who engaged in some act of aggression (assault, physical fights, robbery, crime with weapon) INCREASED DRAMATICALLY with an INCREASE IN TV VIEWING
one issue with the TV and AGGRESSION studies
maybe those children who viewed more TV were more aggressive to begin with
research shows that aggressive people prefer aggressive TV programs
BUT when we CONTROL for CHILD’S INITIAL AGGRESSIVENESS LEVEL, findings STILL SUGGEST that watching TV causes later aggressive behaviour
(and still holds when controlling for neighbourhood violence, childhood neglect, family income)
conclusion: appears that frequent TV/movie exposure to violent models increases aggressive behaviour both…
over the SHORT RUN and even MANY YEARS LATER
how does exposure to TV/movie violence increase violent actions?
TV/movie exposure increases aggressive acts but no necessarily the exact acts seen in the media
exposure to violence makes VIOLENT THOUGHTS/EMOTIONS MORE ACCESSIBLE
cognitive idea
players of violent video games are rewarded for…
killing police, prostitutes, innocent bystanders
use weapons like cars, flame-throwers, chainsaws
particularly worrisome features of video games
- players don’t MERELY WATCH the action
^ pay close attention and active engage in violent acts
- all of them REWARD HIGHER VIOLENCE
playing violent video games increases…
likelihood that the player will act aggressively
IMMEDIATELY AFTERWARDS and AFTER TIME has passed
Ps who had been rewarded for video game violence gave…
LOUDER and LONGER blasts of noise
compared to Ps who had either:
1. been PUNISHED for violence
2. played NON-VIOLENT game
some studies find playing violent video games increases feelings of…
HOSTILITY
and causes players to think of video victims as LESS THAN HUMAN
the more realistic the video game…
the stronger the effect it has on increasing real aggressiveness
what explains fact that Ps who actively play video games subsequently act more aggressively than those who just watch?
the fact that they actually play - ties into Bandura’s social learning theory
where active engagement is the best way to learn a behaviour
adolescents who play lots of violent video games are more likely to…
- ARGUE with teachers
- get into physical FIGHTS
original studies on learned helplessness were conducted using…
conducted using lab animals
lab animal studies on learned helplessness
- harnessed dogs = subjected to series of ELECTRIC SHOCKS from which they COUDLN’T ESCAPE
- after several trials of inescapable shocks, were placed in an AVOIDANCE LEARNING situation
a) whenever signal sounded, dogs could AVOID electric shocks by jumping over small partition
b) dogs that had not gone through earlier shock experience QUICKLY LEARNED to leap over the barrier whenever they heard the signal
- but researchers were COMPLETELY SHOCKED by response of dogs that had first gone through the inescapable shock experience
a) they’d scurry around at first, but then STOPPED MOVING - lay down quietly and whined
b) NEVER CROSSED BARRIER OR ESCAPE THE SHOCK
what had happened to the dogs in the shock experiment?
those who had been shocked before had LEARNED THAT THEY WERE HELPLESS
during inescapable shock trials, they’d tried various moves and none of them were rewarded
eventually learned there was NOTHING THEY COULD DO to turn off the shock - became RESIGNED TO THEIR HELPLESSNESS
researchers had to physically move the dogs to show them escape was possible
how did they adapt learned helplessness to be studied in humans?
used loud noises
Ps were told they could TURN OFF the noise by SOLVING A PROBLEM
ie. pressing some buttons in the correct sequence)
- some Ps worked through dozens of problems quickly
- others were given UNSOLVABLE PROBLEMS
^ they learned there was no way to escape the aversive stimulus
did the Ps given the unsolvable problems GENERALIZE their feelings of helplessness to other situations?
Ps were taken out of noise situation and given a DIFF TYPE OF PROBLEM to work on
those who had found earlier problems solvable had LITTLE DIFFICULTY with the new ones
however, Ps who had FELT HELPLESS to turn off the noise performed SIGNIFICANTLY WORSE on the second set of problems
they INAPPROPRIATELY GENERALIZED PERCEPTION OF HELPLESSNESS in one situation to a new, controllable situation
can you suffer from learned helplessness without ever failing yourself?
yes
ie. if you see people similar to you in ability fail a test
may think “there’s no use in trying. nobody ever passes”
learned helplessness in eldery people
retirement communities often are designed to take care of cooking/cleaning/structuring of daily concerns/responsibilities
but this TAKES CONTROL AWAY from the elderly people - is this good for them?
they used to live with great deal of control
this sudden reduction in perception of control may generalize to other areas of their lives
retirement residence 2 floor study SETUP
altered usual treatment - increased amount of RESPONSIBILITY and CONTROL given to ONE OF THE FLOORS
- gave PRESENTATION urging residents to TAKE CONTROL of their lives
^ decide how to arrange their rooms, decide how to spend their time, see friends, listen to radio etc
- offered small PLANT as GIFT
^ decided if they wanted a plant, which on they wanted, were told they were responsible for taking care of it
RESIDENTS on the OTHER FLOOR were comparison group
^ given talk about ALLOWING STAFF to TAKE CARE OF THEM
^ given a plant (chosen by staff) and were told staff would take care of it for them
retirement residence 2 floor study RESULTS
diffs between 2 floors were evident
- responsibility-induced condition reported FEELING HAPPIER
^ were visiting more, sitting around less
^ 93% were reported to show improved adjsutment
- only 21% of the residents in comparison group showed improvement
- these differences in HAPPINESS and ACTIVITY LEVEL were still there 18 months later
retirement residence 2 floor study MOST DRAMATIC RESULT
15% of the responsibility-induced residents had died 18 months after intervention
compared to 30% of the comparison group
mortality rates from all causes over 5 year period study
looked at mortality rates of 20 323 middle aged/older adults in Norwich over 5 years
citizens who had indicated on earlier psych tests that they FELT sense of MASTERY over their lives = significantly MORE LIKELY TO SURVIVE than those who expressed a general sense of helplessness
depression and learned helpnessness
similar
depression sometimes develops in a similar manner to way research Ps develop learned helplessness
people PERCEIVED LACK OF CONTROL over ONE IMPORTANT PART of their lives
and INAPPROPRIATELY GENERALIZE that perception to other situations
people who find they can’t control relatively simple lab tasks like escaping irritating noise…
show significant increases in depressed feelings
support for learned helplessness-depression from animals
changes in neurotransmitters and receptors in animals exposed to inescapable shock
SIMILAR to changes in NTs and RECEPTORS we see in depressed people
what NT in particular plays role in development of both learned helplessness and depression?
serotonin
data supports that exposure to uncontrollable events can…
lead to depression
BUT one diff between lab-induced learned helplessness and depression is that in the lab it’s SHORT - lasts no more than a FEW days in rats and dogs
while clinical depression lasts considerably longer (sometimes for years)
explanation for why depression lasts so long
may still be related to learned helplessness - but it lasts long because…
- there are MANY DIFF CAUSES Of depression (alongside learned helplessness)
- depressed patients RUMINATE about causes of their depression
^ re-experience helplessness-inducing events
treatment for learned helplessness
can be overcome fairly quickly by experiencing success at controlling outcomes
locus of control developed out of…
Rotter’s concept of GENERALIZED EXPECTANCIES
in new situation, we have no info from previous experience to draw on
so we RELY ON GENERAL BELIEFS about our ability to influence events
can have beliefs that locus of control is primarily INTERNAL or EXTERNAL
internals or externals: who tends to be happier?
internals
people suffering from psych disorders tend to be more _________ than _________
EXTERNAL than internal in their locus of control beliefs
correlation between locus of control scores and depression
0.31
external scores associated with higher levels of depression
reasons for connection between locus of control and depression ties back to…
learned helplessness
externals often find themselves in situations where they feel they CAN’T CHANGE IMPORTANT OUTCOMES
study where diagnosed cancer patients were tested for depression levels
EXTERNAL patients: the more severe the diagnosis, the more depressed they became
but SEVERITY of disease had NO IMPACT on depression experienced by INTERNAL PATIENTS
^ they believed they could STILL CONTROL course of the disease, this belief shielded them from GIVING UP and BECOMING DEPRESSED about situation
suicidal people and locus of control
- asked suicidal people to relive events that happened immediately before suicide attempt
a) patients DESCRIBED THEMSELVES IN MORE EXTERNAL TERMS as they became MORE SUICIDAL
- suicide attempters often experience INCREASE in events OUTSIDE THEIR PERSONAL CONTROL JUST PRIOR to the attempt
- external teens report more suicidal thoughts than internals
majority of people scoring on external end of locus of control scales are…
happy and well-adjusted
relationship between locus of control and depression may vary from…
culture to culture
tendency for externals to experience more depression than internals is WEAKER in COLLECTIVIST CULTURES in which personal demonstrations of masterful accomplishments are less likely to be valued
because depression-external locus of control relationship is correlational…
it’s difficult to make strong statements about external locus of control causing disorder
may be that externals are susceptible to depression BUT also possible that DEPRESSED PEOPLE BECOME MORE EXTERNAL
when researchers use locus of control to predict achievement…
they consistently find that INTERNALS receive higher grades and better evaluations than externals
true at all ages, but particularly in adolescence
why do internals do better in school?
- see themselves as RESPONSIBLE for their achievements
- respond differently to FEEDBACK
- PAY ATTENTION to info that will help them meet their goals
- more AMBITIOUS and GOAL-ORIENTED
external and internals: respond differently to FEEDBACK
^ externals say they did well because test was easy, internals because they worked hard
^ internals better at ADJUSTING expectancies after feedback - so PREPARE better for FUTURE assessments
^ externals more likely to MAKE EXCUSES after poor feedback
internals in careers
higher levels of performance
higher job satisfaction
less likely to miss work
less likely to complain about work stress
less likely to experience burnout
psychotherapy and locus of control: clients tend to become more…
internal as they pass through successful psychotherapy
ie. soldiers with PTSD - shortly after combat, scored EXTERNAL
but over the next 3 years recovered slowly, and became INCREASINGLY INTERNAL
as they came to appreciate the control they could exercise over many parts of their lives, took important step towards recovery
should therapists focus on giving clients more control over therapy?
(since internal locus of control is associated with better outcomes)
NOT NECESSARILY
although internals respond when when given control over treatment, externals sometimes DO BETTER when treatment REMAINS IN THERAPIST’S HANDS
example of when external patients do better when therapy is in therapist’s hands
study of depression levels in those with rheumatoid arthritis
external patients became LESS DEPRESSED when their spouses provided them with lots of SUPPORT/ASSISTANCES
internal patients showed INCREASE IN DEPRESSION when spouses showed this SAME AMOUNT OF ASSISTANCE
SPOUSE’S CARE WAS SEEN AS HELPFUL BY EXTERNALS, BUT AS INDICATION OF DEPENDENCE (and unhelpful) BY INTERNALS
locus of control and health
those who believe their health is largely IN THEIR OWN HANDS will do what they can to get better
those who attribute bad health to BAD GENES or FATE may see little reason to make the effort
externals or internals - who tend to be in better health?
internals
8.5 year study followed internals and externals (assessed for locus of control at beginning of study)
internals were significantly less likely to experience health problems than externals
health diffs between externals and internals can be explained by…
differences in ways internals and externals APPROACH their physical health
EXTERNAL orientation: believe there is LITTLE THEY CAN DO to improve their physical condition/avoid disease
INTERNAL orientation: believe they have a SIGNIFICANT ROLE in maintaining their good health
^ see a CONNECTION between what they do and how they feel - so they eat well and exercise etc
internals are generally healthier than externals and practice…
better health habits
college students with external locus of control toward their health…
were more likely to:
- smoke
- drink
- skip breakfast
- eat fatty foods
- consume less fruit and fibre
internals have more confidence in their ability to control _________ situations
stressful situations
and are thus less likely to suffer health-harming consequences of stress
in high-stress positions, business execs who were internals were less likely to become ill
internals are more likely than externals to seek out info about…
health problems
when talking about psychotherapy success, what might be the best approach for internals/externals?
MATCHING locus of control and the health message
separate messages, one catered to internals and the other to externals
ie. encouraging women to get mammograms
- for internals: “The Best Thing YOU Can Do for Your Health”
- for externals: “The Best Thing MEDICAL SCIENCE Has To Offer for Your Health”
internals were more likely to get mammogram within the next 6 months when they received the internally worded messages
and external women were more likely to get a mammogram when receiving the externally oriented message
some investigators _____ to find health diffs between…
fail
between externals and internals
(or find only weak effects)
go back to Rotter’s ideas of expectancy and REINFORCEMENT VALUE - some internals may not consider health behaviour as that high in reinforcement value
health behaviours: it’s not just about internal/external…
also about the value that internals place on health
ie. internals who placed high reinforcement value on health were found to eat MORE FRUITS/VEGGIES and FEWER FATTY FOODS/SNACKS than:
a) externals
b) internals who didn’t value physical health
2 tasks health practitioners face when trying to get patients to take better care of themselves
- patients must place health HIGH on list of THINGS THEY VALUE
- patients must BELIEVE they can INFLUENCE the extent to which they are HEALTHY
