Textbook Chapter 8 Flashcards
trait approach has become so entrenched in personality research today that, for many psychologists…
personality research is SYNONYMOUS with measuring and examining traits
using trait measures has become part of the arsenal for experimenters
5 areas of research that illustrate the breadth and depth of the trait approach
- achievement and achievement motivation
- Type A behaviour pattern and measures of hostility
- social anxiety/shyness
- individual differences in emotions
- optimism and pessimism
Murray’s need for achievement
desire to “accomplish something difficult; to master, manipulate or organize…to overcome obstacles and attain a high standard; to excel one’s self”
how do people assess the need for achievement?
using the TAT
test takers CREATE STORIES about scenes they see in TAT cards
investigators then use objective coding systems to obtain a need for achievement score from the stories
TAT test for need for achievement
time consuming
subject to Qs about the interpretation of scores
so now, investigators often rely on easier-to-administer self report inventories to assess achievement motivation
fact that scores for achievement motivation are different between TAT and self report scales has led to what?
led to suggestion that there are 2 kinds of achievement motivation
- IMPLICIT motive (assessed by TAT)
^ come into play in spontaneous actions
- SELF-ATTRIBUTED/EXPLICIT motive (we can readily describe)
^ come into play when we have time to ponder achievement options and decisions
early investigators discovered that people with a need for achievement don’t always fit…
the stereotypes for a highly successful business person
ie. one prominent feature of high need achievers is that they’re MODERATE risk takers (not high risk takers)
^ highly motivated to succeed, but also to AVOID FAILURE
desire to achieve doesn’t mean they ignore the possibility of failure
what kind of jobs are attractive to high need achievers?
routine/boring jobs hold no more interest for high need achievers than they do for anyone else
- jobs that require CREATIVITY and provide OPPORTUNITY TO DEMONSTRATE WHAT THEY CAN DO are very appealing
- prefer jobs that give them PERSONAL RESPONSIBILITY for OUTCOMES
^ want concrete feedback about their performance
explanation for why high need achievers often end up in the business world
because of their need for personal responsibility for outcomes and their need for feedback
in business, sales, productivity and profit figures provide CONSTANT PERFORMANCE BAROMETERS
can parents promote high achievement motivation?
- promote achievement motivation by providing SUPPORT and ENCOURAGEMENT long enough to enable child to develop sense of PERSONAL COMPETENCE
^ as long as child isn’t robbed of independence and initiative
about finding FINE LINE between too much PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT and not enough
two edged sword of high need for achievement
- more likely to find economic prosperity
- can also INTERFERE WITH EFFECTIVE PERFORMANCE
^ delegating authority and managing others is important to success
^ someone too concerned with their own effective performance might struggle to relinquish control and rely on subordinates
much early achievement work was conducted only with…
male participants
later found that need for achievement predicts SUCCESS in the business world for BOTH GENDERS
although success in business world is predicted by high need achievement for both genders…
studies suggest that MANY OTHER VARIABLES come into play when comparing the achievement behaviour of men and women
- men and women THINK ABOUT ACHIEVEMENT DIFFERENTLY
^ differ on kinds of achievement they value and where achievement in the business world lies in relation to their personal goals
- differ in way they DEFINE SUCCESS
example of how men and women see achievement differently
ie. businesswoman might value achievement, but occasionally might put other concerns (like customer welfare or family) above work achievement
how do women and men differ in the way they define success
WOMEN: more likely to rely on INTERNAL definitions of success
^ ie. if they accomplished what they set out to do
MEN: more likely to see success in terms of EXTERNAL STANDARDS
^ gaining prestige or recognition for accomplishments
achievement behaviour in diff cultures
INDIVIDUALISTIC: achievement is defined in terms of PERSONAL accomplishments
- see themselves in COMPETITION with coworkers
COLLECTIVIST: success is defined in terms of COOPERATION and GROUP ACCOMPLISHMENTS
- individual recognition is not sought or needed
- motivated to HELP COWORKERS succeed
attributions and achievement
many psychologists = interested in EXPLANATIONS people generate for WHY they do WELL or POORLY in achievement situations
the answer determines how:
1. we FEEL about the performance
2. we PERFORM in similar situations in the FUTURE
3 dimensions of attribution
- stability
- locus
- control
stability dimension of attributions
STABLE OR UNSTABLE
stable: good coordination, poor math attitude
unstable: good luck, illness (a cold)
locus dimension of attributions
INTERNAL or EXTERNAL
internal: extra effort, poor skills
external: easy test, difficult competition
control dimension of attributions
CONTROLLABLE or INCONTROLLABLE
controllable: high motivation, not enough practice
incontrollable: from wealthy family, weak national economy
by examining attributions along the 3 dimensions, what can researcher do?
PREDICT how people RESPOND to successes or failures
ie. enhanced sense of well-being if reason for success attributed as internal
ie. winning tennis when opponent had sun in their eyes won’t feel that great (external attribution)
how person responds to future events often…
depends on PERCEIVED STABILITY of the cause of the performance
ie. if you attribute a loss to UNSTABLE BAD LUCK, you’ll prob keep playing the sport - explains why people continue to do sports despite losing
most of us attribute our losses to…
UNSTABLE SOURCES
keeps our hope of winning next time alive
relatively easy way to improve achievement motivation
change people’s ATTRIBUTIONS
college students attributional reframing session study
college students - got their grades back from psychology midterm
then half of them went to an ATTRIBUTION RETRAINING SESSION
were told many freshmen struggle with their classes but that CHANGE IS POSSIBLE
^ encouraged to make CONTROLLABLE ATTRIBUTION for their performance ie. I must learn to study efficiently
RESULTS: retraining condition students did BETTER on their next exam AND the attributional training helped them in other classes
college students attributional reframing study results
those attending attributional reframing study…
- did better on following psychology exam
- retraining helped them in other classes
- had HIGHER OVERALL GPAs than those who didn’t have the training
achievement goals
provide targets people aspire to in achievement situations
2 categories: MASTERY goals and PERFORMANCE goals
mastery goals
concerned with DEVELOPING COMPETENCE
ie. working hard to learn course subject matter
satisfaction comes from SENSE OF PROFICIENCY and feeling they UNDERSTAND the material
performance goals
concerned with DEMONSTRATING accomplishment to OTHERS
ie. wanting to get the highest grade in the class
satisfaction comes from RECEIVING RECOGNITION that comes with achievement
2 other categories of goals
APPROACH and AVOIDANCE goals
achievement goal framework
incorporates mastery vs performance and approach vs avoidance goals into a 2x2 matrix
VALENCE: positive/APPROACH vs negative/AVOIDANCE
DEFINITION: MASTERY (absolute/intrapersonal) vs normative (PERFORMANCE)
4 products:
a) approach mastery goal
b) approach performance goal
b) avoidance mastery goal
c) avoidance mastery goal
4 products of the achievement goal framework
- approach mastery goal
- approach performance goal
- avoidance mastery goal
- avoidance performance goal
achievement goal framework: students wanting to learn hard material (mastery goal) can…
be motivated by either
1) approach goal: achieve a sense of mastery
2) avoidance goal: wish to not feel incompetent
are some achievement goals more effective than others?
although both mastery and performance goals motivate people to achieve, people find DIFFS between people who seek competence and those who focus on recognition
- consistent findings that MASTERY GOALS lead to HIGH ACHIEVEMENT
- MASTERY GOALS lead to LONGER INFO/SKILL RETAINING
- GROUP WORK implications: people who rely on PERFORMANCE GOALS are more COMPETITIVE
students motivated by mastery goals often choose more… and are more…
- choose MORE CHALLENGING TASKS
- are MORE INTERESTED in their classes (ie. choosing a class you are fascinated by versus choosing an easy a)
than those who choose performance goals
MASTERY GOALS lead to LONGER INFO/SKILL RETAINING
often continue to pursue the knowledge/skill after the assessment has passed
GROUP WORK implications: people who rely on PERFORMANCE GOALS are…
more competitive
mastery orientation people = more likely to SHARE INFO WITH OTHERS and work to achieve COMMON GOALS
but is reliance on performance goals all bad?
no
both mastery and performance goals can lead to achievement
possible to aspire to BOTH MASTERY and RECOGNITION of accomplishments
BUT advantages of focusing on performance appear to be limited…
advantages of focusing on performance appear to be limited…
limited to APPROACH goals
students motivated only by desire to NOT RECEIVE POOR GRADES tend to DO MORE POORLY than those who come to class with other achievement goals
higher levels of motivation and learning when teachers…
emphasize MASTERY and IMPROVING SKILLS
sadly, many schools take opposite approach of emphasizing grades, competition among students, threats of poor performance
many students don’t respond well to these incentives
focus on performance rather than learning can often…
lead to a decrease in academic motivation
what did doctors notice about heart attack victims?
they were more active, energetic, more driving than those without cardiovascular problems
they seemed to have DIFF PERSONALITIES
coronary-prone behaviour pattern
combo of behaviours associated with coronary disease
later called Type A-Type B or sometimes just Type A
isn’t a true typology though - its a TRAIT CONTINUUM with extreme Type A people on one end and extreme Type B on the other
Type A - coronary-prone behaviour pattern
- strongly motivated to achieve and overcome obstacles
- attracted to competition
- enjoy power and recognition
- easily aroused to anger and action
- dislike wasting time - like efficiency
- like to do more than one thing at a time
Type B - coronary-prone behaviour pattern
- relaxed and unhurried
- may work hard on occasion, but not in the driven, compulsive manner of Type A people
- less likely to seek competition
- less likely to be aroused to anger/arousal
type A people find easygoing people…
a source of frustration
3 major components of Type A trait
- higher COMPETITIVE ACHIEVEMENT STRIVING (CAS)
(regardless of outside pressure/deadlines) - sense of TIME URGENCY
(feel time is important and shouldn’t be wasted) - respond to frustrating situations with ANGER and HOSTILITY
(most significant component)
describing Type A and Type B personality differences in terms of a motivation for…
CONTROL
- achievement striving, time urgency and hostility reflect Type A desire to EXERCISE EFFECTIVE CONTROL over others and situations
evidence for Type A people’s motivation for control
- less likely to give up control over a task (even to a more qualified person)
- tend to dominate group discussion
- more likely to want something after being told they can’t have it
do Type A or Type B people achieve more?
lab studies find Type A people outperform Type B people on ACHIEVEMENT tasks
why?
- they set HIGHER GOALS
- they are COMPETITIVE
Type A and competition - physiological effects
sometimes Type A BLOOD PRESSURE and HEART RATE go up simply when told they’re going to compete against another person
Type A and Type B - academic performance
- type A people take MORE CLASSES
- type A people EXPECT to DO BETTER in those classes
- get more ACADEMIC HONOURS
- participate in MORE EXTRACURRICULARS
- play more SPORTS and get more ATHLETIC AWARDS
- participate in more SOCIAL ACTIVITIES in high school
type A men in 8.5 year study on heart disease…
type a men had MORE THAN TWICE the incidence of heart disease than type B men
but connection between type A and health is MORE COMPLICATED than og research suggested
type A has been found to be better predictor of heart disease than…
- cholesterol level
- cigarette smoking
answer to inconsistent findings on Type A and heart disease
breaking Type A up into its components
when we measure Type A, we’re collapsing more than one trait
HOSTILITY is the culprit
hostility - Type A people
people high in hostility aren’t necessarily violent or even bossy
rather, they have STRONG REACTIONS to the SMALL FRUSTRATIONS and INCONVENIENCES that we all experience
people high in hostility respond to even minor annoyances with…
expressions of:
- antagonism
- disagreeableness
- rudeness
- surliness
- criticalness
- uncooperativeness
most of us have learned to take inconveniences in stride, but some become highly irritated
hostility synonyms
anger, aggression
scores on hostility/anger measures predict…
coronary artery disease pretty well
study followed 12 986 healthy men and women for 4.5 years
participants who scored high on hostility were:
- more 2x AS LIKELY to suffer SOME FORM of coronary heart disease during this time
- nearly 3x TIMES AS LIKELY to be HOSPITALIZED or DIE from heart disease during the study
why is hostility related to cardiovascular problems?
- unhealthy lifestyles
- poor social support
- immune system weaknesses
- blood lipid levels
- high blood pressure
blood pressure response to social interactions study setup
men wore BLOOD PRESSURE MONITOR for entire day
KEPT RECORD of their ACTIVITIES/MOODS throughout the day
blood pressure response to social interactions study results
those high in hostility showed ELEVATED LEVELS OF BP when they INTERACTED WITH OTHERS
the low BP people showed no such reaction
- high hostility people found their convos frustrating/annoying > led to higher BP
blood pressure response to social interactions study results CAVEAT
high blood pressure WOMEN didn’t have this reaction (higher BP when interacting with others)
maybe this is because women generally find social interactions more pleasant and less frustrating than men do
can programs designed to help potential cardiovascular victims reduce their anger responses
these can be effective
they train anger-prone people to REPLACE their initial anger reactions with RELAXATION
encouraging thinking about the situation DIFFERENTLY - keep events in perspective, realize there are more adaptive responses than anger
especially effective for ROAD RAGE sufferers
is Type A bad for your health?
nope
workaholics who push themselves should be fine
as long as they don’t let minor setbacks and little frustrations upset them
it’s possible to be PRODUCTIVE and HEALTHY
percentage of people surveyed who identify themselves as shy
40%
another 40-50% say they HAVE BEEN shy or are shy in CERTAIN SITUATIONS
only a small percentage of people don’t know the pain of social anxiety or shyness
social anxiety
anxiety related specifically to SOCIAL INTERACTIONS or ANTICIPATED SOCIAL INTERACTIONS
composed of many of the usual anxiety symptoms:
- increased physiological arousal
- inability to concentrate
- feelings of nervousness
but SPECIFICALLY attribute the source of their discomfort to the SOCIAL ENCOUNTER
other names for social anxiety
SHYNESS
dating anxiety
communication anxiety
reticence
stage fright
social anxiety = introversion?
no
introverts often CHOOSE to be by themselves
but vast majority of socially anxious people DON’T LIKE their shyness
- 2/3rds call their social anxiety a “real problem”
- 1/4 are willing to seek professional help
characteristics of socially anxious people
- feel awkward and nervous
- very concerned about what others will think of them (esp new people)
- often think about what they’re doing wrong
- think they sound stupid/foolish
- stumble over words, say the wrong thing
- outside signs of nervousness (perspiration, shaking)
- feel embarrassed/ashamed of what they’re saying
- more likely to blush
- can’t think of things to say, fall into silence
people who interact with socially anxious people notice…
notice their anxiety
identify shy people as:
- more TENSE
- more INHIBITED
- more UNFRIENDLY
than nonshy people
conversations with socially anxious people…
are generally LESS PLEASANT than conversations with non-anxious people
shy people aren’t introverts…
most of them would like to have a LARGER SOCIAL NETWORK than they do
would like more PEOPLE TO TURN TO when they need help
but their shyness keeps them from developing more friends/from asking for help
shy people and asking for help
shy people are more reluctant to ask for help
study where task could only be completed with assistance - socially anxious people were MORE RELUCTANT to ask a nearby person for help
wrong assumption made by socially anxious people
assume that people AREN’T INTERESTED in getting to know them
perhaps this is why they interpret feedback received from other people in a negative light
after series of partner tasks, socially anxious people felt…
- like they were LESS LIKED
- and that they’d come across as LESS COMPETENT
than non-anxious people did
people high in social anxiety expect what from their social interactions? what goes this cause them to do?
they expect their social interactions to GO POORLY
leads them to LOOK FOR EVIDENCE that the other person is REJECTING them
this pessimism can cause the social rejection that they fear in the first place
what do people sometimes mistake shyness for?
- lack of interest
- lack of intelligence
shy teens and friends and romantic relationships
- shy teens have LESS FRIENDS
- shy teens have LESS SATISFYING ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIPS (even in longterm relationships)
underlying cause of social anxiety
evaluation apprehension
evaluation apprehension
being afraid of what others think of you
particular fear of negative evaluation
worry that someone will find you foolish, boring, immature
how do socially anxious people deal with fear of negative evaluation?
often, by AVOIDING SOCIAL INTERACTIONS altogether
skip parties, avoid blind dates, opt for papers instead of class presentations
eye contact and socially anxious people
they avoid eye contact
this reduces the amount of social interaction
limits the opportunities for others to evaluate them
shy people and conversations
keep conversation SHORT and NONTHREATENING
limit the amount of PERSONAL INFO they reveal to person they’ve just met
shy people and storytelling experiment
had people tell four personal stories
some of the Ps believed interviewer would use these stories to EVALUATE them later
socially anxious people who thought they were going to be evaluated told SHORTER and LESS REVEALING stories than other Ps
they were worried about leaving poor impression on the interviewer
shyness experiment - 5 min “get acquainted” conversation
had to have a 5 min “get acquainted” convo with someone they had just met
examined tapes of these and found SEVERAL DIFFERENCES in the ways shy and nonshy Ps acted
- shy people = more likely to AGREE with what the other person said
- often merely RESTATED or CLARIFIED their partner’s remarks when it was their turn to talk
shy people’s conversation tactics in the “get acquainted” convo were a way of…
way of creating an IMAGE OF POLITENESS and INTEREST
without becoming TOO INVOLVED in the conversation
in this way, they hope to MINIMIZE OPPORTUNITIES for this person to find SMTG OBJECTIONABLE about them
higher rates of shyness in what kinds of cultures?
cultures that emphasize:
- CONCERN about what OTHERS THINK about you
- AVOIDING CRITICISM
ie. collectivist cultures - more concern about fitting in
shy people’s interaction styles are a type of…
self-protective strategy
do what they can to control the impressions others have of them
but once they get started, shy people…
have little difficulty interacting with others
at least for some shy people, it’s INITIATING a convo that’s the real stumbling block
shy and nonshy convo study with opp sex partneer
shy and nonshy Ps were left alone to carry on a convo with an opposite sex partner
although nonshy people spoke MORE OFTEN and were MORE LIKELY TO BREAK SILENCE…
there was NO DIFF in HOW LONG these groups spoke when they did say something
^ points to how, once they get started, shy people are totally capable of having conversations
when else do shy people find their anxiety less of a problem?
when with FRIENDS
ie. shy students are more likely than nonshy students to eat lunch with a friend
and just having a FRIEND PRESENT is often enough to alleviate negative thoughts that surface when shy people are forced to interact with strangers
when a friend was present, shy people were…
JUST AS LIKELY as nonshy Ps to…
- describe themselves in a POSITIVE MANNER
- to DISCLOSE PERSONAL INFO
to a stranger
maybe what shy people lack is really…
the CONFIDENCE in their ability to MAKE A GOOD IMPRESSION
fear of saying something wrong keeps them from saying anything
so, therapy programs often focus on helping people overcome shyness through getting clients to believe they can say the right thing and make a good impression
emotions in relation to personality
while each of us experiences a wide range of positive and negative emotions…
we can also identify RELATIVELY STABLE patterns in emotions
that DISTINGUISH each person from the people around them
emotions analysed along major dimensions
like with the Big Five personality dimensions, researchers have found that there are a few major dimensions
determined using factor analysis - some emotions DO GO TOGETHER
look at emotions as indicated by self-report inventories, use of words, facial expressions, and evaluations from others
ie. people who are happy also tend to be enthusiastic, those who are irritable are also often sad
2 general dimensions of affect
- positive affect
- negative affect
positive affect dimension
one extreme: ACTIVE, CONTENT, SATISFIED
other extreme: SAD, LETHARGIC
negative affect dimension
one extreme: NERVOUSNESS, ANGER, DISTRESS
other extreme: CALM, SERENE
our general tendencies to experience positive affect and negative affect…
are relatively STABLE over time
emotional affectivity
patterns of relative NEGATIVE or POSITIVE affect possessed by an individual
stable across time
relationship between positive and negative affect
initial investigations suggested these two dimensions are RELATIVELY INDEPENDENT from one another
but later studies found that being HIGH ON ONE of these dimensions means being LOW ON THE OTHER (and vice versa)
ie. the more I experience happiness and contentment, the less I experience anger and anxiety
BUT STILL NEEDS RESEARCH - LIKELY MORE COMPLEX THAN RESEARCHERS INITIALLY REALIZED
complexity of relationship between positive and negative affect
most people can identify a time when they felt a little bit happy and a little bit sad simultaneously
or bittersweet emotions when watching a movie or recalling a memory
behaviours predicted by individual differences in positive and negative affect
- people high in trait POSITIVE affect tend to be in BETTER HEALTH than those low in this dimension
- people high in trait POSITIVE affect tend to be high in SOCIAL ACTIVITY (and have a better time at these events)
- people high in trait POSITIVE affect are more likely to be involved in ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIP (and are more satisfied with their partners)
why is positive affect related to social activity?
could be because social activity CAUSES positive affect
and because some people are more social, they experience more positive emotions
but also possible that people may engage in social activity because they experience positive affect
study: social activity and positive emotions
each week for 13 consecutive weeks…
students completed scale of POSITIVE and NEGATIVE MOOD
and a questionnaire indicating HOW OFTEN they’d engaged in each of 15 diff SOCIAL ACTIVITIES
ie. attending a party, having a serious discussion, going to a movie/concert
THE MORE SOCIAL ACTIVITIES ENGAGED IN DURING THE WEEK, THE HIGHER THE POSITIVE AFFECT THAT WEEK
support for idea that people may seek out social interaction because they experience positive affect
studies find that when we feel good, we’re more likely to:
- seek out friends
- act friendly towards people we meet
people high in trait positive affect also act in ways that…
most people find attractive
which leads to more friends and social activity
video recordings of convos - found high positive affect Ps were rated as MORE PLEASANT and ENGAGING than low positive affect Ps
high positive affect people - conflict reports and disagreements
report FEWER CONFLICTS with friends
more likely to be ACCOMMODATING in disagreements with romantic partners
positive traits associated with people high in positive affect
- less argumentative
- more accommodating
- happy
- enthusiastic
- attentive
- pleasant
- engaging
high scores on negative affect are generally related to…
- psychological stress
- diverse list of emotional problems
- complaints about health
do people high in negative affect really suffer from more problems, or do they simply complain more?
evidence that they complain more (flu study)
but
also could be that they GENUINELY DO experience more symptoms
negative affect flu study - do they suffer more truly, or just complain more?
study exposed volunteers to cold and flu viruses
quarantined them in a hotel for several days
were monitored for REAL symptoms and provided DAILY SELF REPORTS of their PERCEIVED SYMPTOMS
Ps characteristically high in negative affect REPORTED MORE COLD AND FLU SYMPTOMS
but when experimenters look at ACTUAL symptoms, they found NO DIFF between those high and low in negative affect
negative affect rheumatoid arthritis - do they truly suffer more, or just complain more?
7 year study of patients with rheumatoid arthritis
patients high in negative affect reported:
- MORE symptoms generally
- more SEVERE symptoms
BUT they also had HIGHER levels of PHYSICAL AILMENTS that couldn’t be explained away by their tendency to focus on the negative
why should different levels of negative affect be related to one’s physical health?
no clear answers as of yet
- maybe those high in negative affect have DIFFICULTY dealing with STRESS
^subsequently affects their health - maybe MOOD affects health-related BEHAVIOUR
^high and low negative affect people may have diff exercise, eating, health habits - maybe people who suffer more health issues BECOME more NEGATIVE about their health GENERALLY
affect intensity
strength or degree to which people typically experience their emotions
two people can have the same average affect level across a 2 week period, but one can experience much bigger highs and lows while the other remains steady
poles of affect intensity
- LOW: people who respond to emotional situations with MILD REACTIONS
- HIGH: people who respond to emotional situations with STRONG EMOTIONAL REACTIONS
^ experience emotions more intensely and tend to be more variable
^ experience strong negative AND positive emotions
^ peaks and valleys
affect intensity spectrum and emotion awareness
people HIGH in affect intensity are MORE AWARE of their emotions
may SPEND MORE TIME thinking about and reliving emotional experiences
difference between high and low affect intensity people lies in…
how they REACT to events
they experience the same amount of intense/emotionally loaded events
but they react with varying levels of emotion
even relatively mild situations…
can evoke strong reactions in high-intensity individuals
high intensity affect people and predicting hypothetical reactions
high intensity affect people tend to OVERESTIMATE the extent to which events will affect them
often draw UNWARRANTED CONCLUSIONS based on one good or bad experience
ie. a friendly smile signals a blossoming relationship, and a bad grade the end of the world
is it better to be high on affect intensity and experience life vividly, or low on this dimension and maintain calm and steadyness?
aka how does affect intensity relate to WELLBEING
high and low affect intensity people tend to SCORE ABOUT THE SAME on measures of HAPPINESS and WELLBEING
(high intensity people experience more positive affect, but this is offset by higher experiences of negative affect)
difference in HOW high and low affect individuals EXPERIENCE HAPPINESS
HIGH intensity people: happiness means lots of EXHILARATING/ENLIVENING experiences
LOW intensity people: CALM and ENDURING sense of CONTENTMENT
affect intensity: scientists versus artists
SCIENTISTS: tend to be low in affect intensity
ARTISTS: tend to be high in affect intensity
emotional expressiveness
refers to a person’s OUTWARD DISPLAYS of emotion
some “wear emotions on their sleeves”/we can “read them like a book”
relatively STABLE DIFFERENCES in the extent to which we express our emotions
- continuum of high to low expressiveness
gender and expressivity
women tend to be more expressive than men
women also tend to be better at reading the emotions in other people’s faces
emotional expressivity and how we get along with others
importantly related
the more people express their emotions, the FEWER PROBLEMS they have in romantic relationships
communication is better when partners understand what the other person is feeling
people who express their emotions freely tend to experience les…
confusion when trying to read another person’s emotions
expressing emotions and psychological health
- expressing emotions = good for psychological health
study: people completed WELLBEING MEASURES and kept DAILY records of their MOODS for 21 consecutive days
results: highly expressive Ps were HAPPIER and experienced LESS ANXIETY/GUILT than those who were low in expressiveness
- expressive people tend to be lower in DEPRESSION
positive outlook often associated with…
- high achievement
- positive mood
positive outlook and heart transplant
Ps were asked about their expectations before heart transplant surgery
those with positive expectations did MUCH BETTER job at ADJUSTING TO LIFE after the surgery than those with a more pessimistic outlook
dispositional optimism
relatively stable degree of pessimism/optimism possessed by a person
optimism and achievement
optimists achieve more
- set HIGHER goals
- PRIORITIZE goals effectively
- BELIEVE they can reach their goals
optimism: what’s the mechanism behind their success?
having CONFIDENCE IN THEIR ABILITY
optimists don’t let setbacks and temporary failures get them down
optimism and pessimism: culture
individualistic cultures: more optimistic
collectivist cultures: more pessimistic
ie. study had Canadian and Japanese students estimate likelihood that certain events would happen to them (ie. live long, get cancer) and Japanese students were more pessimistic
when are differences between pessimists and optimists likely to be seen?
when people are faced with STRESSFUL EVENTS
3 studies on optimism and stressful events
- people living in Haifa during Persian gulf war - dispositional optimists living in the region experienced LESS ANXIETY and DEPRESSION than those identified as pessimists
- caretakers for loved ones with Alzheimer’s - optimistic people experienced LESS STRESS and DEPRESSION than pessimistic caregivers
- optimistic Ps who had experienced DEATH/SEVERE ILLNESS of a loved one had FEWER HEALTH PROBLEMS in 18 months following event that pessimists
optimism versus pessimism: reactions to health problems and medical procedures
- optimistic women who had surgery for BREAST CANCER reported LESS DISTRESS during next year
^ and showed HIGHER ADJUSTMENT several years later
- rheumatoid ARTHRITIS patients high in optimism scored higher on PSYCHOLOGICAL ADJUSTMENT measures than pessimistic patients did
- optimistic men recovering from CORONARY ARTERY BYPASS SURGERY showed better MOOD and QUALITY OF LIFE 6 months after surgery
why do optimists deal with stress so much better than pessimists?
- use DIFF STRATEGIES to COPING with their problems
^ optimists = more likely to TACKLE PROBLEMS HEAD ON
^ pessimists = more likely to DISTRACT themselves, resort to DENIAL
optimists versus pessimists: coping with a big exam
OPTIMISTS: used direct problem solving
a) prepped for the test
b) talked with other students about their experiences
PESSIMISTS:
a) relied on wishful thinking
b) withdrew from others
optimistic cancer patients were more likely to use what kind of coping strategies?
active
- did what they could to deal with their cancer
- talked to other people about it
- used humour as coping
while pessimistic patients avoided thinking about it and kept their feelings to themselves, used denial
optimism and health
good for your health
- optimists tend to be in BETTER PHYSICAL HEALTH
why do optimists generally have better physical health?
- optimists develop wide SOCIAL NETWORKS - turn to friends in times of crisis
^ and social support contributes to better health
- PHYSIOLOGICAL changes (immune system strength, blood pressure)
- optimistic outlook leads to kinds of ATTITUDES and BEHAVIOURS that contribute to good health
physiological changes that affect health of optimists and pessimists
- changes in optimism of law school students were related to changes in IMMUNE SYSTEM STRENGTH
- when law students were feeling more optimistic, they had stronger immune systems than when they were feeling more pessimistic
- because they often experience negative emotions, pessimists also tend to have HIGHER BP
optimistic outlook - attitudes and behaviours that lead to good health
- cardiac rehabilitation program:
^ optimistic patients were more successful in reducing saturated fat in their diet, decreasing body fat, increasing aerobic capacity
^ decided they could reach their rehabilitation GOALS and did what was needed to succeed
- PAY ATTENTION to more RELEVANT HEALTH INFO
^ physically active, eat healthier food, less prone to destructive habits like substance abuse
fatalistic view taken by pessimists may…
prevent them from practicing reasonable health and safety practices
ie. seatbelt, using a designated driver
pessimists (esp those who expect bad things to occur in wide range of situations) were more likely than optimists to be involved in a FATAL CAR CRASH
