Textbook Chapter 15 Flashcards
cognitive approach describes diffs in personality as diffs in…
the ways people PROCESS INFORMATION
predecessors to the cognitive approach
- found in Kurt Lewin’s field theory of behaviour
described MENTAL REPS we form of the important elements in our lives and how we ORGANIZE these cognitive elements within our “life space”
- George Kelly
his writings = starting point for many cognitive approaches to personality
George Kelly life dates
1905-1967
George Kelly background
born near Wichita, Kansas
debater - good at challenging arguments and conventional positions
graduated with degree in physics and mathematics
then studied educational sociology
then studied education at Uni of Edinburgh
then got PhD in psychology
after Dust Bowl - “came to see what these people needed most was an EXPLANATION for what had happened to them and an ABILITY to PREDICT what would happen to them in the future”
^ PERSONAL CONSTRUCT THEORY
then served in the navy
George Kelly’s approach to personality begins with…
unique conception of human kind
George Kelly called his perspective what?
man-the-scientist perspective
like scientists, people CONSTANTLY GENERATE and TEST HYPOTHESES about their world
we have a NEED FOR PREDICTABILITY
Kelly: our need for predictability results in…
something like template matching - PERSONAL CONSTRUCTS
our ideas about world are like TRANSPARENT TEMPLATES
we place them over the events we encounter
if they MATCH, we RETAIN the templates
if NOT, we MODIFY THEM for a better prediction next time
personal constructs
Kelly
the cognitive structure we use to INTERPRET and PREDICT EVENTS
they’re BIPOLAR
what does it mean to say that personal constructs are BIPOLAR?
we classify relevant objects in an EITHER/OR fashion within our constructs
when you meet someone for first time, you apply personal constructs:
- friendly/unfriendly
- tall/short
- intelligent/unintelligent
- masculine/feminine
does bipolar nature of personal constructs mean we see world as black and white?
ie. someone is either intelligent or unintellignece
NO - because after applying the first construct, we use OTHER bipolar constructs to determine the EXTENT of blackness/whiteness
ie. academically intelligent/commonsense intelligent
how can personal constructs be used to explain personality
Kelly maintained that diffs in personality largely result from diffs in ways people CONSTRUE THE WORLD
different people will use different constructs (ie. friendly/unfriendly versus fun/boring) to evaluate people and things
people tend to use the SAME CONSTRUCTS ACROSS SITUATIONS - have a characteristic way of interacting with people
for Kelly, the relatively stable patterns in our behaviour are the result of…
relatively stable way we CONSTRUE the world
to get a sense of your own personal constructs, ask yourself…
what you tend to notice about people when you first meet them
what you come up with are probably some of the constructs you use to make sense of other people and their behaviour
also possible that people use the same constructs but…
see the world differently
people’s constructs may be similar on one pole but…
not on the other
ie. outgoing/reserved construct versus outgoing/melancholy construct
^ what one person may see as RESERVED behaviour another may see as SADNESS
diff people can also organize constructs…
differently
practically endless ways to organize constructs
Kelly rejected notion that psych disorders are caused by…
past traumatic experiences
rather, he argued that people suffer from psych problems because of DEFECTS IN THEIR CONSTRUCT SYSTEMS
past experiences with an unloving parent/tragic incident may EXPLAIN WHY people construe the world as they do, but they AREN’T THE CAUSE of the person’s problems
Kelly placed what at heart of most psychological problems?
anxiety
we become anxious when our PERSONAL CONSTRUCTS FAIL TO MAKE SENSE of the events in our lives
ie. upcoming interview will cause more anxiety if you have no idea who you’ll meet/what you’ll be asked
ie. romantic relationship problems are particularly unsettling when you don’t know why things are going poorly/don’t know how to fix things
black box metaphor
used in early days of behaviourism
features in environment (ie. loud noise) cause behaviours (ie. running away) but what HAPPENS INSIDE an organism, between the stimulus and response, is UNKNOWN and UNKNOWABLE
in contrast to black box understanding…
for cognitive personality psychologists, the ELEMENTS BETWEEN STIMULUS and RESPONSE are extremely IMPORTANT
some of the cognitive variables that account for individual differences
encodings
expectations and beliefs
affects
goals and values
competencies and self-regulatory plans
cognitive model of personality
- FEATURES OF SITUATIONS (environment) are NOTICED (and some aren’t)
^ which features are noticed depends on our cognitive structures
- once perceived, VARIOUS MENTAL REPRESENTATIONS (like expectations, values, goals) INTERACT to determine RESPONSE to situation
- our BEHAVIOUR can also affect the SITUATIONS
how do we explain individual differences using the cognitive framework of personality?
- we each possess different set of MENTAL REPRESENTATIONS
- how EASILY we ACCESS certain kinds of info stored in MEMORY varies from individual to individual
ie. Christmas tree will remind one person of religious values, another of family/seasonal joy, and a third of sad memories from childhood
self-concept
our cognitive representation of ourselves
develops at a young age
they’re RELATIVELY STABLE over time
play CENTRAL ROLE in the way we PROCESS INFO and thus how we interact with the world around us
why do some succeed in making exercise a part of their lives, while others fail?
one explanation has to do with whether the would-be exerciser incorporates exercise into his/her self-schema
self-schema
cognitive reps of ourselves that we use to ORGANIZE and PROCESS SELF-RELEVANT info
consists of BEHAVIOURS/ATTRIBUTES that are MOST IMPORTANT to yuo
what makes up your core self-schema?
basic info
name, physical appearance, significant relationships - these are found within everyone’s self-schema
what part of self-schemas are most interesting?
the UNIQUE features within your self-schema
ie. some people include ATHLETE or PHYSICALLY FIT in their self-schemas - consider athletic activities as part of who they are
traits concepts can also be a part of your…
self-schema
ie. independence or friendliness
if you consider yourself a friendly person, you frequently evaluate/decide your behaviour by asking “was that a friendly thing to do/what would a friendly person do?”
but it may never occur to someone else to evaluate their actions in terms of friendliness
random example of a potential self schema
(stored in memory)
religion
geography
basketball
school
men
clothing
parents
wine
these are all placed at a different distance away from the centrally placed SELF
because of individual diffs in self-schemas…
we behave differently
diff behaviour based on diff self-schemas in elementary school children
kids with PROSOCIAL as part of their self-schemas = more likely to GIVE VALUABLE TOKENS to others than kids who didn’t include prosocial in their self schemas
men and women whose self-schemas included sexuality reported…
higher levels of SEXUAL DESIRE and STRONGER ROMANTIC ATTACHMENTS than those whose self-schemas didn’t include sexuality
participants with simpatico were found to…
interact with others in a WARMER, MORE ENGAGED MANNER
(simpatico: interpersonal style emphasizing hospitality and graciousness)
how do psychologists determine what a person’s self schema looks like?
look at how people PERCEIVE and USE INFORMATION presented to them
ie. answer yes or no “are you a competitive person”
^ some people will answer this immediately and decisively, while others will pause to think
^ diff people will find Qs about diff traits easier or harder to answer
ITEMS THAT WERE EASY TO ANSWER ARE THOSE FOR WHICH YOU HAVE A WELL-DEFINED SCHEMA
having a schema for a particular trait (ie. competitiveness) means that…
their schema allows them to UNDERSTAND the concept
RETRIEVE RELEVANT INFO
and RESPOND IMMEDIATELY
schemas allow for rapid…
processing of schema-related info
schemas provide framework for…
organizing and storing information
people retrieve info from memory more readily when they have a strong schema for a topic than when info is stored in a less organized manner
self-schemas word recall study
- Ps had to answer non-self-schema related Qs
and
- Ps had to decide whether a word described them - had to process info through their self-schemas
after, they were asked to RECALL AS MANY OF THE 40 WORDS AS POSSIBLE
when Ps answered Qs about themselves, they were MORE LIKELY TO REMEMBER THE INFO than when the question hadn’t been processed through self-schema
THIS SERVES AS EVIDENCE OF A SELF-SCHEMA
self-schema word recall study: because info in our schemas is easy to access…
the self-referent words were EASIER TO REMEMBER than those not processed through self schemas
self-reference effect!
self-reference effect
easier to remember info that we process through our self-schemas
/that we relate to ourselves in some way
we often relate new info we encounter to…
something about ourselves
ie. when hearing about a friend’s trip to Paris, may think of your own visit to Paris
self reference effect and birthday memory
students significantly more likely to remember a friend’s birthday that is CLOSE TO THEIR OWN
ie. you’re more likely to remember a friend’s birthday that’s in November if your bday is that month too, and less likely to remember a friend’s bday in April
Carlos and Denise deductive logic example points to…
refresher: Denise and Carlos both do badly on a deductive logic and argumentation exam
Denise brushes it off, while Carlos is pre-occupied with it, worries about it, considers taking another course on it
Carlos is planning on going to law school, while Denise is not
negative evaluation of deductive logic skills MEANS SOMETHING QUITE DIFFERENT to Carlos than it does to Denise
POINTS to the fact that our BEHAVIOUR is directed NOT ONLY by COGNITIVE REPS of ourselves in the moment, but ALSO BY REPS OF WHAT WE MIGHT BECOME
representations of what we might become are called…
possible selves
ie. think about a future with lots of friends, a medical degree, a physically fit body
possible selves
cognitive reps of the kind of person we might become someday
fairly stable over time
what do possible selves include?
- ROLES/APPLICATIONS
a) includes those we ASPIRE to (community leader, doctor) and those we FEAR we may fall into (alcoholic, divorced parent)
- ATTRIBUTES we think we may possess in the future
possible selves rep our…
dreams and aspirations
and
fears and anxieties
2 important functions served by our possible selves
- PROVIDE INCENTIVES for future behaviours
^ help guide our decisions - choose what helps us reach our goals/avoid our fears
- help us INTERPRET THE MEANING of our BEHAVIOUR/EVENTS in our lives
^ ie. man with a “pro baseball pitcher” possible self will attach very diff meaning to arm injury than someone who doesn’t think of himself that way
^ ie. woman with possible “cancer patient” possible self will react diff to changes in her health than someone without this cognitive rep
possible selves help us interpret meaning of our behaviours/events in our lives: in other words…
we pay MORE ATTENTION and have STRONGER EMOTIONAL REACTIONS to events that are relevant to our possible selves
because possible selves guide many of our choices/behaviours, they can be useful in…
predicting future behaviour
used to look at:
- binge drinking
- academic performance
- weight loss
- adherence to exercise problem
possible selves in juvenile delinquents
more than 1/3 of the juvenile delinquents had developed a CRIMINAL POSSIBLE SELF
very few of these adolescents possessed possible selves for more conventional goals (like having a job)
gender diffs in possible selves
female high school/college students are less likely to see themselves in traditionally masculine roles
uni women are less likely than men to have possible self that includes a career in MATH/SCIENCE/BUSINESS
male students are less likely to see themselves in careers related to ARTS/CULTURE/COMMUNICATION
solutions to gender discrepancies in possible selves
high school girls with FRIENDS in science / who receive ENCOURAGEMENT from peers are more likely to develop a scientist possible self
same-gender MODELS also help
people = more optimistic about reaching their hoped-for occupation when they know someone already in that position
similarity between possible selves and Carl Rogers’
real-self and ideal-self
Rogers described difficulties people face when their real-selves are very far off from their ideal-selves
self-discrepancy theory
proposes 3 different cognitive representations of the self
- actual self
- ideal self
- ought self
actual self
self-discrepancy theory
contains all the INFO you have about the kind of person you ARE (or believe you are)
similar to notion of self-concept
ideal self
your mental image of the kind of person you WOULD LIKE to be
includes your DREAMS, ASPIRATIONS and GOALS
ought self
self you BELIEVE YOU SHOULD BE
kind of person who FULFILLS DUTIES/OBLIGATIONS that have been DEFINED FOR YOU by VARIOUS SOURCES (ie. parents, religion)
ie. devoted parent, patriotic citizen, community contributor
self-discrepancy theory: we often compare…
compare the way we act (actual self) with the way we want to be (ideal self) or feel we should be (ought self)
we often fall short
discrepancies between our actual selves and ideal selves lead to…
disappointment
rejection
sadness
discrepancies between our actual delves and ought selves lead to…
agitation
anxiety
guilt
self-discrepancy judgments take place…
outside of conscious awareness
so we can experience sadness or guilt without being aware of WHY we feel this way
differences in emotional reactions between those who experience discrepancies between their actual selves and IDEAL selves versus OUGHT selves
ideal self discrepancy: sadness, rejection, disappointment
ought self discrepancy: guilt, anxiety, agitation
ideal and ought selves over time
they stay pretty stable
self-discrepancy cultural diff
Japanese students had larger discrepancies between actual and ideal selves than Canadian students did
but this increase in self-criticism didn’t lead to higher levels of depression
george kelly quote
“the best scientist is one who approaches his subject [as] intimately as a clinician…and the best clinician is one who invites his client to join him in a controlled investigation of life”
cognitive therapists and cognitive-behaviour therapists both identify…
inappropriate thoughts as cause of mood disorders and self-defeating behaviour
people become anxious or depressed because they harbour anxiety or depression arousing thoughts
goal of most cognitive therapies is…
to help clients RECOGNIZE inappropriate thoughts
and REPLACE them with more appropriate ones
cognitive therapists teach how to deal with __________ problems
recurring
one cause of recurring problems
self-defeating thinking
man who suffers from shyness prob approaches party saying “no one will want to talk to me because they think I’m dumb and stupid”
this man has set himself up to fail
will conclude at the party, from slightest cue, that things are going poorly as he anticipated they would
cognitive therapy may be limited to…
psychological problems based on IRRATIONAL and SELF-DEFEATING thinking
cognitive therapy = esp good for treating…
emotional disorders like DEPRESSION and ANXIETY
one of the earliest advocates of cognitive therapy
Albert Ellis
what did Albert Ellis develop?
RATIONAL EMOTIVE THERAPY
A-B-C process
blend of cognitive and behavioural therapies
ellis: why do people become depressed, anxious, upseet?
because of FAULTY REASONING and reliance on IRRATIONAL BELIEFS
ABC process
basis of Ellis’ rational emotive therapy
A: activating experience (ie. boyfriend breaks up with you)
B: irrational Belief
C: emotional Consequence (ie. depressed)
^ if this reaction is severe enough to affect your functioning, might benefit from counselling
counsellor asks how you logically go from A (the experience) to C (the emotion)
ABC process: counselor’s first question
how did you go from A (experience) to C (emotional reaction)
why should a personal setback or loss cause such strong negative emotion?
the answer is B - the irrational Belief
^ the only way you could logically conclude that you’re depressed because of a breakup is if you tell yourself things like “it’s necessary for me to be loved by everyone in my life” or “I’ll never find anyone else”
UNCOVERS THE IRRATIONAL BELIEF THAT’S FEEDING THE EMOTIONAL CONSEQUENCE
ellis maintained that we all hold….
a number of irrational beliefs
ie. belief that failing a class is a catastrophe (it really isn’t)
some irrational beliefs are easy to point out and get over, others are more subtle and resistant to change
twofold goal of rational emotive therapy
- clients must IDENTIFY their irrational beliefs and come to SEE HOW they lead to faulty reasoning
- therapist helps replace irrational beliefs with NEW REASONABLE ones
example of identifying an irrational belief and then replacing it
instead of DECIDING your romantic breakup is a reason to be depressed
you might TELL YOURSELF that (although you are sad your relationship didn’t work out) you know that not all relationships are meant to be
and that this doesn’t mean you’ll never attain a good relationship again
the A statement (experience) stays the same, but the B statement (belief) changes - therefore the old C (depression) doesn’t occyr
George Kelly made what the centre of his approach to personality?
personal constructs
but this emphasis created a problem - how does one go about MEASURING a person’s personal construct?
Kelly’s way of measuring client’s personal constructs
Repertory Grid Technique
most common of these is the Role Construct Repertory Test (Rep Test)
repertory grid technique
- test taker creates list of ELEMENTS
^ elements: anything person encounters in life, most often specific people the test taker knows
- test taker’s personal constructs are elicited by COMPARING/CONTRASTING various elements on the list
role construct theory test (rep test)
most common repertory grid test
- therapists ask client to list 24 PEOPLE from various PERSONAL EXPERIENCES
ie. teacher they liked, most interesting person they know etc
- therapists present client with 3 NAMES from list and asks “in what important way are two of these people ALIKE but DIFFERENT from the third?”
ie. client might say two of them are warm while the other is cold
^ used a warm-cold construct to characterize the three people
- process is REPEATED with THREE DIFF NAMES from the list’
- 20 TRIALS WERE SAID TO PROVIDE THERAPIST WITH USEFUL SAMPLE OF CLIENT’S PRINCIPAL CONSTRUCTS
therapists take list of constructs derived from client’s initial Rep Test and get them to…
EVALUATE each person on the list according to the construct
this creates a GRID that allows the therapist to LOOK FOR PATTERNS across broad set of info
repertory grid technique creates a VISUAL MAP of…
how clients and those suffering from various psychological disorders CONSTRUE THE WORLD
how else has repertory grid technique been used?
to sudy…
communication within a large organization
teaching effectiveness
profiles of specific criminal types
career counseling
limitations of repertory grid technique
- doesn’t create a TEST SCORE
- large degree of INTERPRETATION on therapist’s part
- problematic underlying ASSUMPTIONS
^ that constructs used in test apply to people not on the list, or that they are relatively permanent
the MOST PRECARIOUS ASSUMPTION made by the repertory grid test
that people can DESCRIBE the constructs they use
clients may supply words that COME CLOSE to what they mean, but might not fully capture what they’re thinking
words may not exist for describing all constructs
and client-therapist definitions may also be different
strengths of cognitive approach
- many of its IDEAS EVOLVED OUT OF and were developed through EMPIRICAL FINDINGS
^ foundations = subjected to extensive investigation in controlled lab experiments
^ have been MODIFIED as investigators learn more
- FITS well within current zeitgeist of psychology
^ very cognitive atm
- cognitive approaches to PSYCHOTHERAPY have POPULARIZED in recent years
^ 67% of therapists described their therapy orientation as “cognitive behavioural”
^ nearly half said they use rational emotive therapy with their clients from time to time
criticisms of cognitive approach
- concepts are TOO ABSTRACT for empirical research
^ what’s a “personal construct” or “possible self”?
^ how do we know if a schema is being used?
^ how many schemas are there? are they related?
- do we NEED to introduce these concepts to account for INDIVIDUAL DIFFS in behaviour?
^ strict behaviourists might argue they can explain same phenomena with fewer constructs
^ schemas/personal constructs may be unnecessary and even an obstacle to understanding personality
- NO SINGLE MODEL to organize and guide theory and research
^ no answer to questions about how various cognitive structures relate to one another and to other aspects of info processing
^ is a personal construct the same thing as a schema?
