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Psyc 332 > Textbook Chapter 15 > Flashcards

Textbook Chapter 15 Flashcards

1
Q

cognitive approach describes diffs in personality as diffs in…

A

the ways people PROCESS INFORMATION

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2
Q

predecessors to the cognitive approach

A
  1. found in Kurt Lewin’s field theory of behaviour

described MENTAL REPS we form of the important elements in our lives and how we ORGANIZE these cognitive elements within our “life space”

  1. George Kelly

his writings = starting point for many cognitive approaches to personality

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3
Q

George Kelly life dates

A

1905-1967

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4
Q

George Kelly background

A

born near Wichita, Kansas

debater - good at challenging arguments and conventional positions

graduated with degree in physics and mathematics

then studied educational sociology

then studied education at Uni of Edinburgh

then got PhD in psychology

after Dust Bowl - “came to see what these people needed most was an EXPLANATION for what had happened to them and an ABILITY to PREDICT what would happen to them in the future”

^ PERSONAL CONSTRUCT THEORY

then served in the navy

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5
Q

George Kelly’s approach to personality begins with…

A

unique conception of human kind

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6
Q

George Kelly called his perspective what?

A

man-the-scientist perspective

like scientists, people CONSTANTLY GENERATE and TEST HYPOTHESES about their world

we have a NEED FOR PREDICTABILITY

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7
Q

Kelly: our need for predictability results in…

A

something like template matching - PERSONAL CONSTRUCTS

our ideas about world are like TRANSPARENT TEMPLATES

we place them over the events we encounter

if they MATCH, we RETAIN the templates

if NOT, we MODIFY THEM for a better prediction next time

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8
Q

personal constructs

A

Kelly

the cognitive structure we use to INTERPRET and PREDICT EVENTS

they’re BIPOLAR

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9
Q

what does it mean to say that personal constructs are BIPOLAR?

A

we classify relevant objects in an EITHER/OR fashion within our constructs

when you meet someone for first time, you apply personal constructs:

  • friendly/unfriendly
  • tall/short
  • intelligent/unintelligent
  • masculine/feminine
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10
Q

does bipolar nature of personal constructs mean we see world as black and white?

A

ie. someone is either intelligent or unintellignece

NO - because after applying the first construct, we use OTHER bipolar constructs to determine the EXTENT of blackness/whiteness

ie. academically intelligent/commonsense intelligent

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11
Q

how can personal constructs be used to explain personality

A

Kelly maintained that diffs in personality largely result from diffs in ways people CONSTRUE THE WORLD

different people will use different constructs (ie. friendly/unfriendly versus fun/boring) to evaluate people and things

people tend to use the SAME CONSTRUCTS ACROSS SITUATIONS - have a characteristic way of interacting with people

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12
Q

for Kelly, the relatively stable patterns in our behaviour are the result of…

A

relatively stable way we CONSTRUE the world

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13
Q

to get a sense of your own personal constructs, ask yourself…

A

what you tend to notice about people when you first meet them

what you come up with are probably some of the constructs you use to make sense of other people and their behaviour

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14
Q

also possible that people use the same constructs but…

A

see the world differently

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15
Q

people’s constructs may be similar on one pole but…

A

not on the other

ie. outgoing/reserved construct versus outgoing/melancholy construct

^ what one person may see as RESERVED behaviour another may see as SADNESS

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16
Q

diff people can also organize constructs…

A

differently

practically endless ways to organize constructs

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17
Q

Kelly rejected notion that psych disorders are caused by…

A

past traumatic experiences

rather, he argued that people suffer from psych problems because of DEFECTS IN THEIR CONSTRUCT SYSTEMS

past experiences with an unloving parent/tragic incident may EXPLAIN WHY people construe the world as they do, but they AREN’T THE CAUSE of the person’s problems

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18
Q

Kelly placed what at heart of most psychological problems?

A

anxiety

we become anxious when our PERSONAL CONSTRUCTS FAIL TO MAKE SENSE of the events in our lives

ie. upcoming interview will cause more anxiety if you have no idea who you’ll meet/what you’ll be asked

ie. romantic relationship problems are particularly unsettling when you don’t know why things are going poorly/don’t know how to fix things

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19
Q

black box metaphor

A

used in early days of behaviourism

features in environment (ie. loud noise) cause behaviours (ie. running away) but what HAPPENS INSIDE an organism, between the stimulus and response, is UNKNOWN and UNKNOWABLE

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20
Q

in contrast to black box understanding…

A

for cognitive personality psychologists, the ELEMENTS BETWEEN STIMULUS and RESPONSE are extremely IMPORTANT

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21
Q

some of the cognitive variables that account for individual differences

A

encodings

expectations and beliefs

affects

goals and values

competencies and self-regulatory plans

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22
Q

cognitive model of personality

A
  1. FEATURES OF SITUATIONS (environment) are NOTICED (and some aren’t)

^ which features are noticed depends on our cognitive structures

  1. once perceived, VARIOUS MENTAL REPRESENTATIONS (like expectations, values, goals) INTERACT to determine RESPONSE to situation
  2. our BEHAVIOUR can also affect the SITUATIONS
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23
Q

how do we explain individual differences using the cognitive framework of personality?

A
  1. we each possess different set of MENTAL REPRESENTATIONS
  2. how EASILY we ACCESS certain kinds of info stored in MEMORY varies from individual to individual

ie. Christmas tree will remind one person of religious values, another of family/seasonal joy, and a third of sad memories from childhood

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24
Q

self-concept

A

our cognitive representation of ourselves

develops at a young age

they’re RELATIVELY STABLE over time

play CENTRAL ROLE in the way we PROCESS INFO and thus how we interact with the world around us

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25
Q

why do some succeed in making exercise a part of their lives, while others fail?

A

one explanation has to do with whether the would-be exerciser incorporates exercise into his/her self-schema

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26
Q

self-schema

A

cognitive reps of ourselves that we use to ORGANIZE and PROCESS SELF-RELEVANT info

consists of BEHAVIOURS/ATTRIBUTES that are MOST IMPORTANT to yuo

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27
Q

what makes up your core self-schema?

A

basic info

name, physical appearance, significant relationships - these are found within everyone’s self-schema

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28
Q

what part of self-schemas are most interesting?

A

the UNIQUE features within your self-schema

ie. some people include ATHLETE or PHYSICALLY FIT in their self-schemas - consider athletic activities as part of who they are

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29
Q

traits concepts can also be a part of your…

A

self-schema

ie. independence or friendliness

if you consider yourself a friendly person, you frequently evaluate/decide your behaviour by asking “was that a friendly thing to do/what would a friendly person do?”

but it may never occur to someone else to evaluate their actions in terms of friendliness

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30
Q

random example of a potential self schema

A

(stored in memory)

religion
geography
basketball
school
men
clothing
parents
wine

these are all placed at a different distance away from the centrally placed SELF

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31
Q

because of individual diffs in self-schemas…

A

we behave differently

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32
Q

diff behaviour based on diff self-schemas in elementary school children

A

kids with PROSOCIAL as part of their self-schemas = more likely to GIVE VALUABLE TOKENS to others than kids who didn’t include prosocial in their self schemas

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33
Q

men and women whose self-schemas included sexuality reported…

A

higher levels of SEXUAL DESIRE and STRONGER ROMANTIC ATTACHMENTS than those whose self-schemas didn’t include sexuality

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34
Q

participants with simpatico were found to…

A

interact with others in a WARMER, MORE ENGAGED MANNER

(simpatico: interpersonal style emphasizing hospitality and graciousness)

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35
Q

how do psychologists determine what a person’s self schema looks like?

A

look at how people PERCEIVE and USE INFORMATION presented to them

ie. answer yes or no “are you a competitive person”

^ some people will answer this immediately and decisively, while others will pause to think

^ diff people will find Qs about diff traits easier or harder to answer

ITEMS THAT WERE EASY TO ANSWER ARE THOSE FOR WHICH YOU HAVE A WELL-DEFINED SCHEMA

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36
Q

having a schema for a particular trait (ie. competitiveness) means that…

A

their schema allows them to UNDERSTAND the concept

RETRIEVE RELEVANT INFO

and RESPOND IMMEDIATELY

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37
Q

schemas allow for rapid…

A

processing of schema-related info

38
Q

schemas provide framework for…

A

organizing and storing information

people retrieve info from memory more readily when they have a strong schema for a topic than when info is stored in a less organized manner

39
Q

self-schemas word recall study

A
  1. Ps had to answer non-self-schema related Qs

and

  1. Ps had to decide whether a word described them - had to process info through their self-schemas

after, they were asked to RECALL AS MANY OF THE 40 WORDS AS POSSIBLE

when Ps answered Qs about themselves, they were MORE LIKELY TO REMEMBER THE INFO than when the question hadn’t been processed through self-schema

THIS SERVES AS EVIDENCE OF A SELF-SCHEMA

40
Q

self-schema word recall study: because info in our schemas is easy to access…

A

the self-referent words were EASIER TO REMEMBER than those not processed through self schemas

self-reference effect!

41
Q

self-reference effect

A

easier to remember info that we process through our self-schemas

/that we relate to ourselves in some way

42
Q

we often relate new info we encounter to…

A

something about ourselves

ie. when hearing about a friend’s trip to Paris, may think of your own visit to Paris

43
Q

self reference effect and birthday memory

A

students significantly more likely to remember a friend’s birthday that is CLOSE TO THEIR OWN

ie. you’re more likely to remember a friend’s birthday that’s in November if your bday is that month too, and less likely to remember a friend’s bday in April

44
Q

Carlos and Denise deductive logic example points to…

A

refresher: Denise and Carlos both do badly on a deductive logic and argumentation exam

Denise brushes it off, while Carlos is pre-occupied with it, worries about it, considers taking another course on it

Carlos is planning on going to law school, while Denise is not

negative evaluation of deductive logic skills MEANS SOMETHING QUITE DIFFERENT to Carlos than it does to Denise

POINTS to the fact that our BEHAVIOUR is directed NOT ONLY by COGNITIVE REPS of ourselves in the moment, but ALSO BY REPS OF WHAT WE MIGHT BECOME

45
Q

representations of what we might become are called…

A

possible selves

ie. think about a future with lots of friends, a medical degree, a physically fit body

46
Q

possible selves

A

cognitive reps of the kind of person we might become someday

fairly stable over time

47
Q

what do possible selves include?

A
  1. ROLES/APPLICATIONS

a) includes those we ASPIRE to (community leader, doctor) and those we FEAR we may fall into (alcoholic, divorced parent)

  1. ATTRIBUTES we think we may possess in the future
48
Q

possible selves rep our…

A

dreams and aspirations

and

fears and anxieties

49
Q

2 important functions served by our possible selves

A
  1. PROVIDE INCENTIVES for future behaviours

^ help guide our decisions - choose what helps us reach our goals/avoid our fears

  1. help us INTERPRET THE MEANING of our BEHAVIOUR/EVENTS in our lives

^ ie. man with a “pro baseball pitcher” possible self will attach very diff meaning to arm injury than someone who doesn’t think of himself that way

^ ie. woman with possible “cancer patient” possible self will react diff to changes in her health than someone without this cognitive rep

50
Q

possible selves help us interpret meaning of our behaviours/events in our lives: in other words…

A

we pay MORE ATTENTION and have STRONGER EMOTIONAL REACTIONS to events that are relevant to our possible selves

51
Q

because possible selves guide many of our choices/behaviours, they can be useful in…

A

predicting future behaviour

used to look at:
- binge drinking
- academic performance
- weight loss
- adherence to exercise problem

52
Q

possible selves in juvenile delinquents

A

more than 1/3 of the juvenile delinquents had developed a CRIMINAL POSSIBLE SELF

very few of these adolescents possessed possible selves for more conventional goals (like having a job)

53
Q

gender diffs in possible selves

A

female high school/college students are less likely to see themselves in traditionally masculine roles

uni women are less likely than men to have possible self that includes a career in MATH/SCIENCE/BUSINESS

male students are less likely to see themselves in careers related to ARTS/CULTURE/COMMUNICATION

54
Q

solutions to gender discrepancies in possible selves

A

high school girls with FRIENDS in science / who receive ENCOURAGEMENT from peers are more likely to develop a scientist possible self

same-gender MODELS also help

people = more optimistic about reaching their hoped-for occupation when they know someone already in that position

55
Q

similarity between possible selves and Carl Rogers’

A

real-self and ideal-self

Rogers described difficulties people face when their real-selves are very far off from their ideal-selves

56
Q

self-discrepancy theory

A

proposes 3 different cognitive representations of the self

  1. actual self
  2. ideal self
  3. ought self
57
Q

actual self

A

self-discrepancy theory

contains all the INFO you have about the kind of person you ARE (or believe you are)

similar to notion of self-concept

58
Q

ideal self

A

your mental image of the kind of person you WOULD LIKE to be

includes your DREAMS, ASPIRATIONS and GOALS

59
Q

ought self

A

self you BELIEVE YOU SHOULD BE

kind of person who FULFILLS DUTIES/OBLIGATIONS that have been DEFINED FOR YOU by VARIOUS SOURCES (ie. parents, religion)

ie. devoted parent, patriotic citizen, community contributor

60
Q

self-discrepancy theory: we often compare…

A

compare the way we act (actual self) with the way we want to be (ideal self) or feel we should be (ought self)

we often fall short

61
Q

discrepancies between our actual selves and ideal selves lead to…

A

disappointment

rejection

sadness

62
Q

discrepancies between our actual delves and ought selves lead to…

A

agitation

anxiety

guilt

63
Q

self-discrepancy judgments take place…

A

outside of conscious awareness

so we can experience sadness or guilt without being aware of WHY we feel this way

64
Q

differences in emotional reactions between those who experience discrepancies between their actual selves and IDEAL selves versus OUGHT selves

A

ideal self discrepancy: sadness, rejection, disappointment

ought self discrepancy: guilt, anxiety, agitation

65
Q

ideal and ought selves over time

A

they stay pretty stable

66
Q

self-discrepancy cultural diff

A

Japanese students had larger discrepancies between actual and ideal selves than Canadian students did

but this increase in self-criticism didn’t lead to higher levels of depression

67
Q

george kelly quote

A

“the best scientist is one who approaches his subject [as] intimately as a clinician…and the best clinician is one who invites his client to join him in a controlled investigation of life”

68
Q

cognitive therapists and cognitive-behaviour therapists both identify…

A

inappropriate thoughts as cause of mood disorders and self-defeating behaviour

people become anxious or depressed because they harbour anxiety or depression arousing thoughts

68
Q

goal of most cognitive therapies is…

A

to help clients RECOGNIZE inappropriate thoughts

and REPLACE them with more appropriate ones

69
Q

cognitive therapists teach how to deal with __________ problems

A

recurring

70
Q

one cause of recurring problems

A

self-defeating thinking

man who suffers from shyness prob approaches party saying “no one will want to talk to me because they think I’m dumb and stupid”

this man has set himself up to fail

will conclude at the party, from slightest cue, that things are going poorly as he anticipated they would

71
Q

cognitive therapy may be limited to…

A

psychological problems based on IRRATIONAL and SELF-DEFEATING thinking

72
Q

cognitive therapy = esp good for treating…

A

emotional disorders like DEPRESSION and ANXIETY

73
Q

one of the earliest advocates of cognitive therapy

A

Albert Ellis

74
Q

what did Albert Ellis develop?

A

RATIONAL EMOTIVE THERAPY

A-B-C process

blend of cognitive and behavioural therapies

75
Q

ellis: why do people become depressed, anxious, upseet?

A

because of FAULTY REASONING and reliance on IRRATIONAL BELIEFS

76
Q

ABC process

A

basis of Ellis’ rational emotive therapy

A: activating experience (ie. boyfriend breaks up with you)

B: irrational Belief

C: emotional Consequence (ie. depressed)

^ if this reaction is severe enough to affect your functioning, might benefit from counselling

counsellor asks how you logically go from A (the experience) to C (the emotion)

77
Q

ABC process: counselor’s first question

A

how did you go from A (experience) to C (emotional reaction)

why should a personal setback or loss cause such strong negative emotion?

the answer is B - the irrational Belief

^ the only way you could logically conclude that you’re depressed because of a breakup is if you tell yourself things like “it’s necessary for me to be loved by everyone in my life” or “I’ll never find anyone else”

UNCOVERS THE IRRATIONAL BELIEF THAT’S FEEDING THE EMOTIONAL CONSEQUENCE

78
Q

ellis maintained that we all hold….

A

a number of irrational beliefs

ie. belief that failing a class is a catastrophe (it really isn’t)

some irrational beliefs are easy to point out and get over, others are more subtle and resistant to change

79
Q

twofold goal of rational emotive therapy

A
  1. clients must IDENTIFY their irrational beliefs and come to SEE HOW they lead to faulty reasoning
  2. therapist helps replace irrational beliefs with NEW REASONABLE ones
80
Q

example of identifying an irrational belief and then replacing it

A

instead of DECIDING your romantic breakup is a reason to be depressed

you might TELL YOURSELF that (although you are sad your relationship didn’t work out) you know that not all relationships are meant to be

and that this doesn’t mean you’ll never attain a good relationship again

the A statement (experience) stays the same, but the B statement (belief) changes - therefore the old C (depression) doesn’t occyr

81
Q

George Kelly made what the centre of his approach to personality?

A

personal constructs

but this emphasis created a problem - how does one go about MEASURING a person’s personal construct?

82
Q

Kelly’s way of measuring client’s personal constructs

A

Repertory Grid Technique

most common of these is the Role Construct Repertory Test (Rep Test)

83
Q

repertory grid technique

A
  1. test taker creates list of ELEMENTS

^ elements: anything person encounters in life, most often specific people the test taker knows

  1. test taker’s personal constructs are elicited by COMPARING/CONTRASTING various elements on the list
84
Q

role construct theory test (rep test)

A

most common repertory grid test

  1. therapists ask client to list 24 PEOPLE from various PERSONAL EXPERIENCES

ie. teacher they liked, most interesting person they know etc

  1. therapists present client with 3 NAMES from list and asks “in what important way are two of these people ALIKE but DIFFERENT from the third?”

ie. client might say two of them are warm while the other is cold

^ used a warm-cold construct to characterize the three people

  1. process is REPEATED with THREE DIFF NAMES from the list’
  2. 20 TRIALS WERE SAID TO PROVIDE THERAPIST WITH USEFUL SAMPLE OF CLIENT’S PRINCIPAL CONSTRUCTS
85
Q

therapists take list of constructs derived from client’s initial Rep Test and get them to…

A

EVALUATE each person on the list according to the construct

this creates a GRID that allows the therapist to LOOK FOR PATTERNS across broad set of info

86
Q

repertory grid technique creates a VISUAL MAP of…

A

how clients and those suffering from various psychological disorders CONSTRUE THE WORLD

87
Q

how else has repertory grid technique been used?

A

to sudy…

communication within a large organization

teaching effectiveness

profiles of specific criminal types

career counseling

88
Q

limitations of repertory grid technique

A
  1. doesn’t create a TEST SCORE
  2. large degree of INTERPRETATION on therapist’s part
  3. problematic underlying ASSUMPTIONS

^ that constructs used in test apply to people not on the list, or that they are relatively permanent

89
Q

the MOST PRECARIOUS ASSUMPTION made by the repertory grid test

A

that people can DESCRIBE the constructs they use

clients may supply words that COME CLOSE to what they mean, but might not fully capture what they’re thinking

words may not exist for describing all constructs

and client-therapist definitions may also be different

90
Q

strengths of cognitive approach

A
  1. many of its IDEAS EVOLVED OUT OF and were developed through EMPIRICAL FINDINGS

^ foundations = subjected to extensive investigation in controlled lab experiments

^ have been MODIFIED as investigators learn more

  1. FITS well within current zeitgeist of psychology

^ very cognitive atm

  1. cognitive approaches to PSYCHOTHERAPY have POPULARIZED in recent years

^ 67% of therapists described their therapy orientation as “cognitive behavioural”

^ nearly half said they use rational emotive therapy with their clients from time to time

91
Q

criticisms of cognitive approach

A
  1. concepts are TOO ABSTRACT for empirical research

^ what’s a “personal construct” or “possible self”?
^ how do we know if a schema is being used?
^ how many schemas are there? are they related?

  1. do we NEED to introduce these concepts to account for INDIVIDUAL DIFFS in behaviour?

^ strict behaviourists might argue they can explain same phenomena with fewer constructs
^ schemas/personal constructs may be unnecessary and even an obstacle to understanding personality

  1. NO SINGLE MODEL to organize and guide theory and research

^ no answer to questions about how various cognitive structures relate to one another and to other aspects of info processing

^ is a personal construct the same thing as a schema?

Psyc 332 (19 decks)

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