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AcaDec 2024_25 Climate > Science Section 4 > Flashcards

Science Section 4 Flashcards

1
Q

What is the green algal called?

A

Cyanobacteria

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2
Q

The green algal carries out photosynthesis providing energy to what 2 organisms?

A

The algal and the fungal part of the lichen

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3
Q

What is a power grid?

A

A large, somewhat amorphous delivery system.

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4
Q

What does the power grid do?

A

The grid loosely connects the power plants to one another and to all the homes in a given area.

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5
Q

What was covered by sediments Between 160 million and 400 million years ago?

A

Tropical plants growing in swamps and marshes.

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6
Q

What is petroleum?

A

The mixture of hydrocarbons, water and, usually, sulfur that occurs in underground deposits.

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7
Q

What did petroleum form from?

A

The remains of ocean-dwelling plankton that were preserved roughly 65 to 250 million years ago.

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8
Q

What is the remaining product from removing the natural gas from petroleum and leaving only the oil?

A

Liquid petroleum other known as crude oil.

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9
Q

How much natural gas is methane?

A

80 to 95 percent.

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10
Q

What does hydraulic fracturing do?

A

Extracts previously untapped oil and natural gas reserves.

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11
Q

What does hydraulic fracturing involve?

A

Injecting high-pressure streams of water, sand and chemicals into bedrock to create fractures in the rock formation to extract trapped oil and gas.

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12
Q

What does the fluid used to “frack” the bedrock contain?

A

Chemicals such as methanol, ethylene glycol, and propargyl alcohol that are hazardous to human health.

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13
Q

How much water has been used during large scale fracking operations since 2011?

A

About 1.5 trillion gallons of water since 2011.

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14
Q

Is nuclear power usage in the United States supported by the public?

A

No, protesters use the three accidents that have happened in parts of the world as their support

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15
Q

Describe the first nuclear accident that happened in March 28, 1979, that caused the public to be deeply concerned with the safety of nuclear power plants and people began to make early assumptions about their risks

A

a small amount of radiation was released from thee Three Mile Island Plant in Pennsylvania as a result of the nuclear core overheating and suffering some damage caused by a cooling water valve being closed (which prevented the core from staying cool). This was caused by human error.

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16
Q

What movie was coincidentally released before the accident at the Three Mile Island plant?

A

The China Syndrome (which is about when a nuclear plant suffers a major “meltdown” causing widespread anger and fear)

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17
Q

Was the nuclear power plant accident in Chernobyl, Ukraine the result of a natural disaster damaging the plant?

A

No, this nuclear accident was caused by operaters purposefully disconnected emergency cooling systems and removed control rods which caused the nuclear reactions during the special test to overheat. As a result the plant exploded causing several fires that were made worse since the control rods were made of flammable graphite (not water control rods). It is characterized as being a “runaway” reactor incident.

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18
Q

What were the casualties of the explosion at the nuclear power plant in Chernobyl, Ukraine?

A

31 plant workers and firefighter died immediately of acute radiation exposure and hundreds to thousands died over a longer period of time due to the radiation exposure

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19
Q

What natural disaster caused flooding to the reactors of the Fukushima nuclear power plant (located on the main island of Honshu, Japan) in March 2011?

A

an earthquake (that killed over 18,000 people)

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20
Q

What were the effects of the radioactive leakage of the Fukushima nuclear power plant whose reactors were damaged by flooding caused by a major earthquake? (effect on land and people)

A

forced more than 150,000 people to evacuate and caused the area around the nuclear plant to be off limits for the next FORTY YEARS to finish the decontamination work

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21
Q

What are the three types of radioactive waste produced from a nuclear power plant classified as?

A

1). high-level waste from spent (no longer usable) fuel rods 2). low-level waste from contaminated maintenance materials 3). the uranium residue that is left over after uranium mining and enrichment

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22
Q

What is the most dangerous type of radioactive waste that also has to be handled with the most care when disposing?

A

spent fuel rods

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23
Q

What does “spent” mean when describing nuclear fuel rods? Are they still radioactive?

A

that the rods no longer have enough fuel left to produce enough heat to effectively generate electricity. The rods still have highly radioactive fission fragments meaning that they are still a threat to biotic life for tens of thousands of years

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24
Q

How are spent nuclear fuel rods disposed considering they are still highly reactive?

A

in pools of water at least 20 feet deep (act as a shield against radiation) afterwards they are then moved to onsite cement storage containers (AKA a dry cask storage) which can hold 2-6 dozen rod assemblies each

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25
Q

True or False? The U.S. Department of Energy found a place in the U.S. to be a long term repository for spent nuclear fuel?

A

False. In 1978, the department thought that a site at Yucca Mountain, Nevada (~hundred miles from Las Vegas) however protests from the Western Shoshone people who claim the area is sacred to their culture, political pressure from Nevada, and the uncertainty if the land was stable enough to contain the radiation for thousands of years has prevented a repository from being constructed. As of 2023, the plan to do build has ended.

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26
Q

Is the use of fossil fuels sustainable?

A

No, because there no real inputs currently of coal, oil, or natural gas being replenished (not for another million years) even though there are many outputs of human energy

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27
Q

What type of sources is sustainable energy use based on? Some examples?

A

renewable energy sources (they cannot be depleted) such as the Sun and wind

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28
Q

Are biofuels like wood an example of a renewable energy source or a potentially renewable energy source? Why?

A

potentially renewable because their resources are finite but if their use (outputs) is balanced by the creation of new resources (inputs) then it can be sustainable

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29
Q

How is water- and wind-based energy sources considered forms of indirect solar energy?

A

because it is the sun that heats the Earth unevenly which causes air to move to and from different locations creating wind. For water, the sun evaporates the water, where it moves from land to the atmosphere as it falls to the ground as precipitation to supply rivers and streams providing hydrologic power

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30
Q

Name the three significant sources of energy that are not solar based

A

nuclear, geothermal, and tidal

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31
Q

How is the solar constant different from the solar potential?

A

the solar constant is the amount of solar energy that reaches the top of Earth’s atmosphere (roughly 1370 watts per square meter each day). The solar potential is the energy that is potentially available for use by people

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32
Q

Is the solar potential equal to the solar constant?

A

No, because Earth’s atmosphere reflects and absorbs a good fraction of the solar constant energy which leaves 200 watts (give or take 50 and 300 watts depending on the location and time of year) to arrive at the Earth’s surface near the equator

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33
Q

Where in the United States is solar potential the greatest?

A

the Southwest with solar energy available at least 90% of the time

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34
Q

What is passive solar?

A

refers to the collection of solar energy directly from the rays of the Sun without an intermediate technology (such as a pump or blower). This includes home heating with thermal inertia and cooking

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35
Q

What are the two main applications that active solar energy is used for?

A

heating hot water and generating electricity

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36
Q

Where is the Andosol solar power station located? (what country?)

A

Spain

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37
Q

How can energy from the sun be directly converted to electrical energy? And how?

A

with a photovoltaic solar cell which are made of silicon dioxide (SiO2) combined with a small amount of metal (like arsenic and antimony) to increase voltage output

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38
Q

What compound is found in photovoltaic solar cells and generates an electrical current when exposed to direct sunlight (if it is found in very small and ultra clean layers)?

A

silicon dioxide (SiO2)

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39
Q

How many watts of energy does one individual photovoltaic cell produce?

A

about one or two watts which is why normally 24+ cells are joined together and mounted on rooftops of buildings

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40
Q

How tall is a contemporary wind turbine? And the length of its blades?

A

~100 meters, with blades 40 to 75 meters long

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41
Q

How many homes can a wind turbine power in the U.S. if it generates over 843,000 kWh per month?

A

940 average U.S. homes

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42
Q

How many offshore wind turbine farms are located in Northern Europe?

A

at least 40 (over two thousand total wind turbines)

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43
Q

Lichens are indicators of changes in the levels and ecosystems of what?

A

Sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, ozone, and toxic metals

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44
Q

Where do you find lichens?

A

Rocks, and trees

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45
Q

What are a complex sybiosis between two seperate organisms?

A

linchens

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46
Q

Where do you find Cyanobacteria?

A

fungal filaments

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47
Q

What does Cyanobacteria do?

A

carry out photosynthesis, providing energy to linchens

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48
Q

What year did the lead levels increase the most?

A

1970s

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49
Q

Linchens can be used as what?

A

pollution monitors

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50
Q

The absence of a lichen species in regions where it once existed can indicate what?

A

that pollutants have increased to levels intolerable for that species

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51
Q

What will linchens rapidly accumulate into their tissue?

A

pollutants

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52
Q

What is a sensitive bioassay?

A

use of an organism to measure levels of chemicals

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53
Q

What is one of the most polluted regions in the world?

A

South Ural Mountains of Russia,

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54
Q

Who used lichens to monitor a major point source of gaseous?

A

A team of environmental scientists, led by O. William Purvis

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55
Q

To see where the levels of pollutants were highest relative to the emissions source, what did Purvis and his colleagues do?

A

transplanted over six hundred lichens from a nonpolluted area upwind of the smelter to areas at various distances downwind.

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56
Q

After how many months did hey collected the transplants along with samples of native lichens?

A

two and three months

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57
Q

The results of the analyses showed that significant levels of what pollutants were found in both the transplanted
and the native lichens?

A

lead, zinc, uranium, and particulates, such as coal dust,

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58
Q

the closer the transplanted species of lichen were to the smelter, the more likely they were to what?

A

to exhibit tissue damage

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59
Q

Environmental science was used in the development of what
regulation?

A

U.S. Clean Air Act (CAA) of 1970

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60
Q

What like most of the oceans, is considered a global commons that is protected by governments?

A

Atmosphere

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61
Q

What are the six most common and widely harmful air pollutants?

A

sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, lead,
particulate matter, and ground-level ozone.

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62
Q

What element is SO2

A

Sulfur dioxide

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63
Q

How is SO2 released

A

in nature by volcanic eruptions and by humans

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64
Q

All living things contain various amounts of what?

A

sulfur

65
Q

What is N2?

A

nitrogen gas

66
Q

What is a nonrenewable fuel

A

fuels that have a finite present on earth, within the context of a thousand years

67
Q

What is the energy efficiency of older coal plants

A

36%

68
Q

How many BTU of energy did the USA use in 2022

A

100.4 quadriain BTU’s

69
Q

What fuel did USA use to make the majority of there energy.

A

petroleum

69
Q
A
70
Q

What did a majority of the USA’s energy go to

A

Transportation

71
Q

How many bundles of fuel rods might a typical nuclear reactor contain?

A

75 to 100

72
Q

What are the ups and downs of using nuclear power?

A

It is a relatively clean means of electricity however it produces radioactive waste.

73
Q

How many pounds of uranium must be mined to produce seven pounds of uranium oxide for nuclear fuel?

A

As much as two thousand pounds.

74
Q

What is a fission reaction?

A

When an atom is spilts and a small amount of heat is given off.

75
Q

What is currently the greatest energy source in the United States?

A

Petroleum.

76
Q

What are the two general ways that coal is mined?

A

Deep shaft mining and surface mining.

77
Q

What happens during deep shaft mining?

A

Tunnels are dug into the Earth, perhaps as deep as 200 feet, and people descend into the shafts, dislodge the coal, and bring it to the surface.

78
Q

What can be a result of coal extraction?

A

Coal extraction can result in the emissions of several harmful air pollutants, including sulfur dioxides, particulate matter, and mercury, and mining degrades water quality of nearby streams, creating an environmental problem called acid mine dranage.

79
Q

What is ideal for the generation of electricity and for industrial processes and why?

A

Because coal is very dense and plentiful, it is ideal for the generation of electricity and for industrial processes such as making steel.

80
Q

What are some kinetic energy sources?

A

Steam, combustion gases, flowing water, wind.

81
Q

How do consumers get electricity?

A

The kinetic energy sources go through a rotor then go through a rotor shaft which goes into a stator which then gives energy to consumers.

82
Q

What are the different types of coal?

A

Peat, lignite, bituminous coal, and anthracite.

83
Q

Where can uranium be found in?

A

It can be found in relatively small concentrations in a wide variety of rocks, including shale and sandstone.

84
Q

What are two places where commercial operations mine uranium for nuclear fuel?

A

The western U.S. and parts of Canada.

85
Q

What way of transportation used the most fuel per person

A

Transit rail

86
Q

what percentage of the US power sector electricity went away due to energy loss

A

65%

87
Q

How many kilowatt hours did the USA make in 2022

A

4.2 trillion

88
Q

Which of the USA’s fuel sources made the least Kilowatt hours in 2022

A

petroleum

89
Q

Which of the USA’s fuel sources made the most Kilowatt hours in 2022

A

natural gas

90
Q

True or false. fuels that make the most energy for a country also make the most electricity for that country

A

False

91
Q

how much of consumer energy is accounted for by transportation

A

36%

92
Q

What is the energy efficiency of newer coal plants

A

42%

93
Q

what dose energy efficiency mean

A

how efficient it is in transforming from one energy form to another

94
Q

What is the estimate for the global energy efficiency

A

36%

95
Q

What counts for two thirds of the oil use in the world

A

transportation

96
Q

What is the average mile per gallon for cars in the united states

A

25 miles per gallon

97
Q

why cant energy efficiency be 100%

A

because of newtons second laws of thermodynamics. all energy will have some part converted to heat, sound, and or any other biproduct

98
Q

What is a primary energy source

A

A energy source that was created directly from the source

99
Q

What is a secondary energy source

A

A energy source that was changed to another energy source, before its used. ex. electricity

100
Q

what percentage of the US energy is made of renewable energy

A

21.50%

101
Q

What renewable energy generate the most electricity

A

wind

102
Q

What is the first step to turn any fuel source into electricity

A

using the fuel source to spin a turbine

103
Q

How many acres does a utility-scale solar facility require per megawatt output?

A

3.5 to 16.5 acres

104
Q

What are the downsides of solar and wind energies?

A

Neither the sun rays nor the wind are always available. In this case energy is required to be stored so electricity can be depend on this sources but the batteries that power it are expensive and it’s production requires miming, ending in environmental harm, Furthermore a new step is added to the production of energy resulting in loss of energy.

105
Q

What was the argument on the proposal for putting windmills of the Cape Cod in Nantucket in 2003?

A

Some opponents of the project asked why a private company had the right to profit from wind blowing across the ocean, in a public space. They maintained that wind is public, and no individual or corporation has the right to capture it, convert it, and sell it for profit. Another objection was that the windmills would be unsightly and destroy the view from many towns along Cape Cod and Nantucket.

106
Q

What concept did people in favor of the windmills of the Cape Cod in Nantucket in 2003 came up with?

A

Proponents of the project accused the opponents, a number of whom were wealthy celebrities, of NIMBY (not in my backyard) behavior at the expense of much needed clean electricity for many people.

107
Q

How many birds are estimated to die from windmills due to collision each year?

A

An estimated of 10,000 to 40,000 birds die each year because of windmills.

108
Q

What is one objection regarding possibilities of constructing off shore wind farms?

A

They might obstruct migratory pats and endangered whales off the New England coast.

109
Q

What percentage of the total renewable energy does Hydropower currently accounts for?

A

Hydropower accounts for 28.7 percent of the total renewable electricity.

110
Q

What percentage of the total electricity generated in the U.S. does Hydropower account for?

A

Hydropower accounts for 6.2 percent of the total electricity generated in the U.S.

111
Q

How does a run-of-the-river work?

A

Water is diverted from a river, passed through a narrow channel, and directed toward a turbine. After the water goes through the turbine, it is returned to the river.

112
Q

In hydroelectrical power, what type of energy does a turbine transform into electrical energy?

A

As water falls over a vertical distance, the potential energy stored is released as kinetic energy. A hydroelectric power plant captures this kinetic energy and uses it to turn a turbine. The turbine transforms the kinetic energy into electrical energy.

113
Q

What is the peak generating production for run-of-the-river?

A

It generates around one megawatt at peak capacity, enough to supply electricity to about a thousand homes.

114
Q

Why does run-of-the-river energy generation varies during the year?

A

Run-of-the-river electricity generation is dependent on natural water flow, which means that supply is variable during the year, limiting its usefulness during the dry summer months, when electricity demands are at their highest.

115
Q

What are fish ladders?

A

A series of pools and pipes designed like ascending steps that allow fish to travel upstream around a hydro dam.

116
Q

What is water impoundment?

A

Water storage in a reservoir behind a dam.

117
Q

How many watts can the water impoundment from Hydro Quebec dams in Canada generate at peak?

A

Hydro Quebec dams near James Bay, Canada, can generate 7,300 MW at peak.

118
Q

What are the downsides of water impoundment?

A

Areas of land are flooded. Which results in the loss of hundreds of square miles of forest, rich bottom land ideal for agriculture, canyons that have great aesthetic or archeological value, or wild river recreation. Ecological communities are lost, and people are often displaced from their homes, communities,
and livelihoods.

119
Q

How many people were displaced because of the Three Gorges Dam in China?

A

Three Gorges Dam in China forced over 1.3 million people to abandon their home.

120
Q

What can elemental mercury convert to when it is in Hydro dams?

A

Hydro dams can create the conditions for the mercury to be converted from elemental mercury, which is relatively harmless in ecosystems, to methyl mercury, which concentrates in fatty tissue and bioaccumulates in fish and ultimately humans, potentially causing serious health problems.

121
Q

What does MSW stand for (Biomass related)?

A

Municipal solid waste (MSW)

122
Q

What are waste-to-energy facilities?

A

Incinerators that burns organic waste and uses the heat generated to produce commercial energy.

123
Q

What percentage of renewable energy does biomass account for in the U.S.?

A

Together, the variety of biomass products accounts for roughly 37 percent of all renewable energy consumed in the U.S.

124
Q

Where does ethanol come from?

A

Methanol is fermented Corn.

125
Q

What fraction of biomass comes from wood products in the U.S.?

A

Roughly two-thirds of the biomass energy used in the U.S. comes from wood products.

126
Q

What fraction of biomass comes from MSW in the U.S.?

A

Almost one-quarter comes from MSW.

127
Q

What is the most common source of biomass energy in many countries (especially developing countries)?

A

In many parts of the world, especially developing countries, animal dung is the most common source of biomass energy.

128
Q

What changes a biomass’s effects when burned?

A

Biomass is an organic matter, which means it contains a lot of carbon. The Carbon’s age makes it’s effects different from burning fossil fuels.

129
Q

What is the difference between Modern Carbon and Fossil Carbon?

A

Modern Carbon was found naturally in the atmosphere but removed by plants. Fossil Carbon is more Deleterious to the environment because its use adds carbon in the atmosphere.

130
Q

With Modern Carbon being removed from the atmosphere by plants. What happens when new vegetation regrows?

A

New vegetation grows where crops/trees were cut down, the new vegetation will absorb carbon dioxide during photosynthesis. If this stays true, there is no net effect on the carbon cycle or global CO2 concentrations from burning Biomass.

131
Q

Contrasting from, Modern Carbon having no net effect change on the carbon cycle (As long as biomass is replaced by new growth). What is the Net change when Fossil Carbon is burned?

A

Net increase of Global CO2 concentrations whenever a fossil carbon is burned

132
Q

Ethanol is the most common Biofuel. How is it made?

A

1.8 billion gallons of ethanol are made in the U.S each year by fermentation. 92% is derived from corn and corn-by-products.

133
Q

What is the Main thing Ethanol is mixed with and why?

A

At a ratio of 1:10 Ethanol is mixed with gasoline to boost the octane and help oxygenate it which reduces certain air pollutants. Along with preventing the gasoline to freeze, and it replaces fossil carbon with modern carbon by reducing the amount of gasoline used.

134
Q

Some opponets of using ethanol in automobile fuel points out a 90% gasoline /10% ethanol is how much less efficient?

A

Two to Three Percent less efficient than 100 percent gasoline

135
Q

What was the other downside pointed out by individuals against ethanol in automobile fuel?

A

Growing Corn just to convert it to ethanol uses up fossil fuel energy and reduces amount of agricultural land.

136
Q

Geothermal Energy is currently not a major renewable energy source, though it does have potential to become one. What is Geothermal energy?

A

Inexpensive energy that is heat produced from radioactive decay of elements deep in the earth, meaning it won’t ever deplete

137
Q

Geothermal Energy can be used to directly heat water or be used as the primary energy source to what?

A

To produce electricity by changing steam to power turbines without generating greenhouse gasses or other pollutants produced by burning fossil fuels.

138
Q

What are the major cons to Geothermal energy?

A

What’s been holding back Geothermal energy is how it geographically limited, to active areas. Along side that is Geothermal Energy can emit other localized dangerous gases.

139
Q

Despite not being a major energy source, Tidal generation plants are operating in my areas. List out the locations of Generation Plants.

A

Maine, Washington State, Brittany, France, Nova Scotia, Canada, and more

140
Q

What makes Tidal Energy a weaker energy source?

A

The difference between high and low tides in the water level are not enough to provide enough kinetic energy to generate a significant amount of electricity. Secondly, the harness for tidal energy requires power stations to be build directly on the coastline. For example, Estuary has a disruptive effect on ecology of costal, shoreline, and oceans organisms.

141
Q

What is “conservation” in terms of energy?

A

Reduce energy usage by changing everyday actions. This is universally available, however, it does require habit changes.

142
Q

Increasing Energy-Efficiency (using less energy to do the same work) says energy is the ability to do work. When looking in the perspective of sustainability, what is the example provided?

A

Getting Point A to Point B, in 100 miles down the road, Getting there is quantity of usable work, which is the same no matter the weight of vehicle.

143
Q

We were provided two different perspectives of Increasing Energy Efficiency, One was Sustainability and the other is Physics. What is the perspective of Physics?

A

Getting Point A to Point B, in 100 miles down the road, Getting there is quantity of usable work, a two-ton car would take more work then traveling in a one Ton car, which means it would use more energy. To use less Gasoline and increase energy efficiency, use a smaller, lighter car.

144
Q

True or False: We can Increase Energy Efficiency individually through choices we make.

A

True! Some examples of what are can do are: buying a small car rather than a large car, insulating a home so that less fuel is required to heat it, using compact fluorescent light bulbs, purchasing EnergyStar appliances, and traveling less.

145
Q

What is peak demand?

A

Greatest quantity of electricity needed over time. Examples would be: Hot summer day, and the middle of a cold night.

146
Q

How are peak demands reduced?

A

Normally, Building new power plants, however some utilities creative ways such as: encouraging consumers and business to conduct optional activities before 8am (the usual start of peak) or after 8pm (the usual end of peak). If this is done throughout the district. It will reduce peak electricity demand, and the need for new power plants.

147
Q

What is Radion?

A

A radioactive gas from the breakdown of Uranium. Naturally occuring in Rock and Soils from many parts of the world

148
Q

Who is thr U.S. EPA and what do they do?

A

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. They are most responsible for: Identifying, Measuring, and Dealing with Environmental Risks

149
Q

What is the main danger of Radon, to humans?

A

Radon is the second leading cause of lung cancer (Behind smoking) that’s estimated to kill between 6.500 through 31,000 people. Radon has a indirect effect based on lung cancer rates of Uranium miners rather than the public.

150
Q

What does the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) have legal authority to regulate with Radon?

A

Radon in our drinking water, but not Airborne Radon.

151
Q

An estimated 168 deaths were caused by Radon in drinking water. How much does it cost to ensure the risk is reduced with necessary improvements to the water treatment plants?

A

It’s estimated to be above $300 million and possibly more than $400 million

152
Q

Who estimates that spending $86 million on a program that combines a recommended reduction in airborne radon with a required minimal reduction of Radon levels in drinking water would reduce risks of radon-caused cancers?

A

EPA - Environmental Protection Agency

153
Q

Human actions involve voluntary and involuntary risks from economic, health, or environmental Hazards. What is the formula that explains the relationship between the probability of the hazards we face and the probability of harm once exposed?

A

Risk = Probability of exposure to hazard × probability of harm once exposed

154
Q

What are the EPA’s Top concerns of Ecological Risks? (Not Ranked In Order)

A

Global Climate Change, Stratosphere Ozone depletion, Habitat Alteration, Lost of Biodiversity

155
Q

How does the EPA’s top concerns of Ecological Risks compare to the Public’s? (Note that the EPA’s is not in order)

A

The EPA considers more broad issues that have many causes to be more important, while The Public is more concerned about more specific risks. Some The top example for both sections are: Global Climate Change (EPA) and, Active Hazardous Waste Sites (Public)

156
Q

What are some Top Concerns about Health Risks from both the EPA and The Public? List the Top 3 for each.

A

EPA: Criteria Air Pollutants (Smog), Toxic Air Polutants, Radon. Public: Oil Spills, Destruction of Ozon Layer, Nuclear Power Plant Accidents.

157
Q

From 2021 to 2023, the IPCC its sixth multi-volume assessment of the changing knowledge regarding climate change. During each assessment, the ICPP improved and increased their data regarding global climate change. Why was this study significant?

A

This study decreased the amount of scientific uncertainty in its estimates, there is no doubt that human influence has warmed the atmosphere, ocean and land.

AcaDec 2024_25 Climate (21 decks)

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