Science Section 3 Flashcards
According to the United Nations World Population Prosects in 1804 we reached how many people?
In 1804 we reached 1 billion for the first time
After how many years did it take to reach a global population of 2 million
In 1927 after 123 years we doubled in global population
In November 2022 the United Nations estimated we’d hit a population of how many people?
8 billion
Between the years of when did we add about 1 billion people every twelve years to the population?
Between the years of 1974 - 2022
How many more years is it estimated before we reach a population of 9 billion people
Its estimated to happen in 14 years (or by 2036)
If not sooner when is it estimated to reach a population of 10 billion
Its estimated to happen in 2100
What percent is the growing rate of 1963 when human population was 3.6 million.
Growing rate is 2.1 per year
What is the estimated growing rate of population in 2023
estimate growing rate is between 0.83% to 0.9%
How many people on Earth live in higher-income counties
1.3 Billion people
How many people on Earth live in lower-income counties
6.7 million people
Name the 2 lower-income counties listed
China and India
What is the average growth rate in Sub-Saharan Africa?
Average growing rate of 1.5 percent per year
What is the population of the united states that is below 15 percent and the percentage of the population above 65
18/18
What is the population of mexico that is below 15 percent and the percentage of the population above 65
24/8
What dose %<15/%>65 stand for
the percentage of the population below 15 and the percentage of the population above 65
What is a age-structure diagram
A diagram that shows the amount of people per age group and gender
In the world what is the most populated age group?
Ages 5-9
What does a age-structure diagram look like for a growing population
The bottom is bigger than the top, so it resembles a pyramid
What dose a negative growth age-structure diagram look like
The middle is thicker than the bottom, because less babies are being born
what dose it mean if the age-structure diagram is a column
The population is stable, not growing or shrinking.
How thick is the lithosphere
about 100 km
How thick is the earth’s crust?
8-40 km
What are all the layers of earth
Crust, mantel, outer core, and inner core
What diffrentates macronutrients and micronutrients
macronutrients are used in bigger amounts in organisms
what are the six main macronutrients
Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium, Magnesium, Sulfur, Calcium
True or false. Oxygen is the most abundant element in the atmosphere
False, nitrogen is the most abundant element in the atmosphere
What are the four most common elements in the atmosphere
Nitrogen, oxygen, argon, and carbon dioxide
What are the 7 main micronutrients for plants
Magnesium, iron, copper, zinc, molybdenum, chloride, and boron
Where do organisms get micronutrients, and macronutrients
the Atmosphere and lithosphere
What are the three stages of rocks in the rock cycle
igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary
True or false only igneous rock becomes sedimentary rock
False. both igneous rock and metamorphic rock can become sedimentary rock
What age group is the biggest in Japan
50-54 year olds
is Japan’s population growing, shrinking or staying the same
Shrinking
is Uganda population growing, shrinking or staying the same
Growing
What is the biggest layer of the earth
the Mantel
What type of rocks does magma produce?
Igneous rocks
what percent of the atmosphere is Carbon dioxide
about .036%
what percent of the atmosphere is Argon
about 0.9%
what percent of the atmosphere is not O2, C02, Nitrogen, or argon
about 0.064%
In 1960 the population was 3 billion, what was the world estimated fossil fuel consumption?
World fossil fuel consumption was almost 3,000 million
In what year did we use approximately 11,500 million tons of oil?
the year 2022
How much of Earth’s water does freshwater make up?
Only about 3 percent.
How much of Earth’s freshwater is possibly usable by humans?
A little more than 1 percent.
What is an aquifer?
Aquifers are permeable layers of rock and sediment that hold water.
How is water extracted from an aquifer?
A hole is drilled into it which pumps the water out of it.
What is the most basic aquifer comprised of?
Porous rock such as sandstone or other consolidated sediments, covered simply by soil.
What is an unconfined aquifer?
Water filled up in the pore space within the rock.
What is the part of the aquifer that is filled up with water called?
The saturated zone.
What is the top of the saturated zone called?
The water table
What is an aquiclude?
An underground layer of impermeable clay that acts as an impenetrable barrier.
What is a confined aquifer?
Groundwater confined above and below by an aquiclude.
What is desalination?
The removal of salt from naturally salty, usually sea water.
What happens during distillation?
Water is evaporated by boiling leaving behind salts.
How many gallons of water were used each day in the U.S. in 2023?
In 2023, the 334 million people in the United States used a total of 408 billion gallons of water each day.
Approximately how many gallons did every person use every day in the U.S. in 2023?
Approximately 1,300 gallons per person per day.
What is reverse osmosis?
Reverse osmosis is a newer technology that is more efficient and often less costly than distillation although the amount of energy used is still significant.
How much of food production benefits from irrigation worldwide?
Approximately 40 percent.
How many gallons of water does it take to make a single ton of grain?
Roughly 250,000 gallons.
What is conventional irrigation?
When water runs through a ditch alongside a row of crops.
How efficient is conventional irrigation?
About 60 percent.
What is drip irrigation?
When a tube buried in the ground releases water slowly.
How efficient is drip irrigation?
Up to 95 percent efficient.
What are point sources?
Point sources are distinct, confined, locations, such as a particular factory or the pipe leading from a sewage treatment plant.
What are non-point sources?
Diffuse areas, such as an entire farm or a farming region, a suburban community with many lawns and septic systems, or runoff from parking lots.
What is surface water?
Lakes, ponds, streams, rivers, and constructed and natural reservoirs.
What is an artesian well?
A well drilled into a confined aquifer is called an artesian well.
Calcium and magnesium can occur in high concentrations in?
limestone, dolomitic limestone, and marble
What event in the 1920s’ and 30s’ in the Western part of the United States was the source of large amounts of calcium and magnesium that was carried by the prevailing westerly winds and deposited in the eastern/central states?
“dust bowls”
Do calcium and magnesium leach easily?
No similar to phosphorous, but potassium does
Sulfur from the soil is primarily taken up from the soil by plants as?
the sulfate anion (SO4^2-)
What two ions compromise acid rain?
sulfate and nitrate
What is a natural atmospheric source of sulfur?
volcanic emissions
Since what year in the United States has clean air regulations lowered sulfur deposition significantly?
1995
How many horizons does a typical soil have?
three or more
What are horizons (regarding the makeup of soils)?
layers of soil categorized by their physical, chemical, and biological properties
What is the name of the top layer of soil?
A horizon (surface)
The A horizon is a zone of what components?
organic material (humus) and mineral (rock-derived) soil that is mixed together
In forests, what is the top layer of soil called and it compromises needles, leaves, woody material, and animal bodies or droppings that are being decomposed?
O horizon (the O is for organic)
In what types of soils are E horizons likely to occur?
acidic soils
What characterizes the E horizon in soil?
most chemical elements have leached out and the remaining soil is light in color
In what horizon in soils do most chemical elements leach into from the E and overlying A and O horizons?
the B horizon (subsoil)
What soil horizon is the least weathered?
the C horizon
Describe the C horizon in soil
similar to the parent material (the rocky material from which soil is derived). Sometimes in humid regions, it may contain some plant roots and microorganisms but typically these stop at the bottom of the B horizon
What are state variables in regards to soil?
important factors that cause a soil to progress from an initial state
What are the five state variables that determine the nature of soils?
parent material, climate, topography, organisms, time
What is the difference between parent material and bedrock despite them sometimes being used synonymously?
parent material consists of slightly altered rocks and/or minerals that are immediately below the soil. Bedrock is the solid rock underlying the soil
What type of soil does a quartz sand parent material give rise to? And in what areas of the U.S. along the coast are they found?
nutrient poor soil and areas along the Atlantic coast
The majority of soil organisms are _________, consuming dead plant and animal tissue?
detritivores
What are the three groups of organisms that account for 80-90% of the biological activity in soils?
fungi, bacteria/archea, and protozoa (single-celled organisms including algae)
In the temperate zone, the most important macrofauna (or large animals) in soils are what organisms?
earthworms
The pH of soils is best for earthworms when it is?
neutral
How does time influence soil development?
the length of time a soil has existed in an unfrozen state influences the amount of soil development that will occur
How do the horizons of new soils (that have not been unfrozen for super long) differ from soils that have aged like grassland soils?
new soils have very little separation into different hirzons while older soils have developed horizons with increased nutrients
What is soil degradation?
the loss of some or all of the soil’s ability to support plants
Erosion, a major cause of soil degradation, disturbs the topsoil which means it disturbs what two horizons?
O and A horizons
How has soil degradation impacted food production?
it has led to at least a 17% reduction in food production and is most prevalent in Africa and Europe
What is compaction?
a decrease in the pore space of soil or sediment (or increased bulk density) caused by the passage of heavy machinery
What are contributing factors to soil degradation?
compaction, nutrient depletion from intensive use of the land, irrigation, and chemical damage from the use of pesticides
True or False? The projected impact of global climate change on soils is varied
True, there is no general pattern to describe worldwide effects
What was the name of the river that Romans used as the major source of water in Rome until it received too much wastewater causing it to become contaminated?
Tiber River
By what year was the need for aqueducts in Rome needed?
312 B.C.E. (same year the first Roman aqueduct was built)
By 19 BCE there was more than how many kilometers of aqueducts throughout the Roman Empire?
400 km
It has been hypothesized that the decline of the aristocracy was due to the neurotoxicological impacts of lead poisoning because?
of the water from lead pipes
What can happen if an aquifer is pumped more rapidly than it is recharged?
This can lead to local water shortages, usually manifested by one or more wells drying out.
What is the Ogallala Aquifer best known for?
It is the best-known case of groundwater depletion occurring in the U.S.
What is saltwater intrusion?
Saltwater intrusion is when nearby saltwater is drawn towards an aquifer, this is common is coastal areas.
What conditions for a country can make a flood much more dangerous?
Floods can have a worse impact on developing countries, and countries with bad infrastructure and transportation.
How many people worldwide are suffering from undernourishment? .
828 Million, as estimated by WHO
An average person needs _____ calories per day. .
2200 calories
5,000 people die every day from starvation. T/F .
FALSE, in actuality the number is nearly 5 times higher at 24,000.
How much of the grain grown in the world is eaten by livestock? .
Half of the world’s grain
The Unites States eats some of the most meat. How many Pounds do we in the US each year?
270 Pounds
According to Figure 71, how many calories could everyone eat per day if spread evenly as of 2017
2900 Calories
According to Figure 72, the grain multiplier of beef is how much?
7x (It takes 7 kg of grain to grow 1 kg of beef)
According to Figure 72, Which of these 5 countries listed eats the least meat. India, China, USA, Italy, or Germany?
India
Starvation globally is a result of what rather than lack of food?
Unequal distribution. There is an abundance of food but not enough access
If the grain multiplier of this mystery meat was 3, how many pounds of grain would it take to make 2 pounds of this meat?
6 pounds.
Mechanization is one of the greatest changes is modern western agriculture in the last _____ years
- “In the Last Century”
What are some of the things mechanization has automated on the farm
plowing, tilling, planting, harvesting, transportation, processing,& storage.
Why do farmers plow & till soil
when soil is turned annually, drainage improves, root penetration improves, seeds germinate easier, controlling weeds
What precent of soil is lost to erosion.
16%
Due to our plowing & towing of the soil for our plants, the “health” of the solids decreasing because of lack of organic matter. (T/F)
True
What is an idea listed in the passage on how we could improve soil health? (Bottom of Pg. 124)
Leave life be in the fields during growing season
What are the 4 types of Irrigation in soil
Furrow. (Think rivers) Flood. (Think… well floods) Spray. (Think Sprinklers) & Drip. (Think of a leaking pipe)
What is Irrigation? .
the artificial (Anthrophonic) addition of moisture in soil
What replaced schooner and dories in fishing terms?
Large Factory Ships
How are most marine fish now caught?
Huge Trawler nets or drift nets are pulled behind one of the factory ships
Commercial Fish are considered what kind of species?
Keystone Species, which means loss of their populations can have a cascade effect
How can dragnets damage ocean bottom habitats?
By destroying rocks, coral, and sea plants
By-Catch is when?
noncommercial species are caught unintentionally along with targeted species
What are some species that was affected from by-catching?
Sharks, Dolphins, and endangered Sea Turtles
How does Economic pressures affect fishing?
The high cost of new technologies combined with competition fuled Economic pressures into further contributing to overfishing.
What was Fishery managers responses to overfishing?
They often set fishing quotas on the higher side, instead of setting quotas that would better reflect uncertainty
Why is International Cooperation important in fishing?
Because Fish migrate across borders, important fish ecosystems span borders, and many important fisheries lie in international waters.
When did Commercial Salmon by non-Native Americans fishing start in Alaska?
1800s
Fill in the blank: Untill recently, Salmon fishing was ______ to anyone with _______.
- Open to anyone 2. a large enough boat and the right equipment.
In what year did the increase demand for salmon and improved fishing technology begin to outpace fishery managers controls?
1940s
By 1970 Salmon population was so reduced that…?
The Alaska salmon fishing season only lasted five to six days.
What made it impossible to develop effective scientifically based management plans?
Uncertainty about the ecology of Salmon
What new approach did 1973 fishery managers decide to take?
They put responsibility for managing Salmon stocks on the fishers themselves. Through a system of individual transferable quotas (ITQs)
Who got their Quotas first, within the fishing companies?
Individuals with Long-Term Participation
With this new system, a fisher who cannot catch enough to remain economically viable can…?
Sell either a portion or all of their quota to another fisher
Since the Individual transferable Quotas (ITQ) program, what happened to the salmon population and its harvest?
It increased Slowly
What must a Successful long-range fisher management include?
Economic Interests, Local and Cross-Border Political Concerns, and Environmental Science.
How large where the established exclusion zones?
200 miles around their fishery’s
What showed the approach of established exclusion zones was not a sufficient approach?
The collapse of the Northwest Atlantic Regions fishers in 1990s.
What did the Northwest Atlantic fisheries experience a depletion of?
cod and pollock fish stocks, from overfishing by international fleets of factory ships
How far did the Northwest Atlantic fisheries stretch?
Northeastern United States to Southeast Canada, except for a small area of Georges Bank on the Canadian side
Fisheries were forced to close down because of depleted stocks, in order to restore this, and manage the ecosystem, what act was passed in 1996?
The U.S. Sustainable Fisheries Act.
What did the Sustainable Fisheries Act focus on?
Change the focused of fishery from economic sustainability to an increasingly conservation-minded sustainability approach.
Under the Sustainable Fisheries Act, “Sustainable means ____ for Endangered Species?
No fishery until population recover.
True or False: The sustainable Fisheries Act is ecologically minded.
False, They do not specifically mention environmental science or ecology, despite the requirements being for conservation, restoration, and management.
What percentage of solid waste material does primary treatment remove?
Primary treatment removes 40 to 50 percent of the solid waste material.
What is the definition of sludge in primary treatment?
Solid material that settles out during the process is eventually dried and classified as sludge.
What happens during secondary treatment?
After removal of the sludge, the water undergoes secondary treatment, which effectively accelerates the breakdown of organic matter that would occur if the sewage were left to decompose naturally.
What percentage of solid waste material does secondary treatment remove?
At the end of secondary treatment, roughly 85 to 90 percent
of the original pollutants in the water have been removed.
When was The Clean Water Act passed?
1972
Define total Maximum Daily Loads
The Total Maximum Daily Loads are the maximum allowable “inputs” of pollutants into the system.
What agency is responsible for establishing MCL?
EPA is responsible for establishing maximum contaminant levels (MCL) for seventy-seven different elements or substances that can be found in municipal drinking water sources—either surface or groundwater.
What is the total fertility rate in the US ?
1.84
If Fertility rate is 1.84, on average a woman of child-bearing age will have at least how many children?
2
What is a “replacement fertility rate?
Number of children which a woman must have on average to replace current population
T or F: Because of immigration you have to add almost 1 million more people
T: add to the population of the US of individuals of those not yet ready to have kids.
Why is men’s life expectancy shorter than a woman’s?
Men go through hardships in the workplace and different lifestyle choices
How do you get an accurate representation of the level of health care?
By putting together the Life expectancy and infant mortality
What are the developed countries that have a lower infant mortality rate than the US?
Canada, Finland, Iceland, Ireland, Japan, Sweden, and France
In part of the sub-Saharan region in Nigeria what is the percent of under 15 years of age and over 65 years of age?
Under 15: 41% Over 65: 3.3%
What is the infant mortality rate per ethnicity in the US?
10.4 for Black Americans 8.2 for Native Americans
How do you find the crude birth rate (CBR)?
Total number if live births per 1,000 in population per year
How do you find the infant mortality rate?
Number of infants per 1,000 live births that pass before their first birthday
What is Doubling Time (Tdouble)?
The time in years for the population to double at current growth rate
According to figure 54 what is Growth Rate?
“(Rate of Natural Increase) = percent of population growth per year = ((Yr 2 - Yr 1)/ Yr 1) x 100 or (CBR-CDR)/10”
How many years ago did people begin to cultivate the soil, domesticate and raise animals, and domesticate or modify certain
wild species of plants and turn them into crops?
Roughly 12,000 years ago, people began to cultivate the soil, domesticate and raise animals, and domesticate or modify certain wild species of plants and turn them into crops.
What is the formula for Total Maximum Daily Load?
TMDL= ∑ WA + ∑ LA + MOS
What are the downsides agriculture has produced
The abundance of food is one factor that led to the start of what would become the exponential growth of the human population. The deliberate cultivation of food was also the beginning of a level of environmental degradation never before experienced on Earth.
What do some people argue has been the most harmful human endeavor due to its impact of the environment?
Some people contend that agriculture collectively has been the most harmful human endeavor in terms of its impact on the environment.
What are some local constraints on agricultural developments?
Local constraints on agricultural development include the availability of suitable plants for domestication, climate, settlement patterns, and population density.
Are flood plains ideal for agriculture?
Yes. In a flood plain such as that where water periodically overflows the banks of the river and floods the surrounding valleys, nutrients and soil particles are delivered to the surrounding soils, making them superb for agriculture.
What is the only viable way for people to use the soils in semi-arid environments?
In semi-arid environments the only viable way for people to use the soil is nomadic herding, in which they move herds of animals, often over extremely long distances, to seasonal feeding grounds.
Define desertification.
Increasing aridity of drylands; an environmental change that can make agriculture difficult or impossible
What locations are ideal for the practice of slash and burn agriculture?
In locations with a relatively warm climate and moderately nutrient-rich soils where a good portion of the nutrients are in the vegetation rather than in the soil—slash-and-burn agriculture has been practiced for centuries.
What does slash and burn agriculture consist of?
The vegetation is cut down and dragged into piles to burn. The resulting ash is rich in potassium, calcium, and magnesium and therefore makes a good fertilizer for crops or grasses.
What are downsides of slash-and-burn agriculture?
After a few years, the nutrients from the ash are depleted. Moreover, if the deforestation has occurred in an area of heavy rainfall, some nutrients may be washed away along with some of the soil, which further reduces the nutrient content as well as the thickness of soil. Thus, the farmer usually moves on to another plot and repeats the whole process. Furthermore it releases carbon emissions from burning to the Atmosphere.
What is intercropping?
Two or more crop species are planted in the same field at the same time
to promote a synergistic interaction between them.
In intercropping, what would corn (which needs a lot of nitrogen) be a planted along with?
Corn, which requires a great deal of nitrogen, could be planted along with a nitrogen-fixing crop such as peas.
What other practice achieves the same effect as intercropping?
Crop rotation achieves the same effect as intercropping by rotating crop species in a specific order.
What did Norman Borlaug was awarded with in 1970?
American crop scientist Norman Borlaug, was awarded the 1970 Nobel Peace Prize for his work.
What was the result of 1940s research in in Mexico regarding
techniques to increase agricultural output?
The development of strains of wheat that were disease resistant and used fertilizers and irrigation to produce greater crop yields.
What was the Green Revolution?
Intensive agricultural systems involving the cultivation of improved crop varieties in monoculture and increased use of mechanization, fertilizers, and pesticides
What percentage of global land is classified as agricultural lands?
Roughly 38 percent of the global land surface, or 5 billion hectares (50 million square kilometers), is currently classified as agricultural lands.
What six crops provide 80% percent of the calorie intake in human diet?
Wheat, rice, maize (corn), potatoes, sweet potatoes, and manioc.
How are fish such as groundfish caught?
dredging
What is dredging?
special trawler nets are weighted so that they can be pulled across the ocean floor.
Fishing a lot of one species affects what?
Other species
True or false: predators and prey both affect each other greatly.
True
What is one of the most serious consequences of intensive fishing?
loss of juveniles or noncommercial species
What fish species are mainly affected with By-Catch
Sharks
Where are fishnets commonly used?
Gulf of Mexico
Economic pressure is fueled by what three things?
High costs of new technologies, local competition, and international competition
Fishery managers often set fishing quotas or setting quotas on a high side?
Fishing quotas
To solve fishing problems countries make what?
Fishery manegment
Many of the worlds most important fisheries lay of what type of waters?
International waters
True or False: High scientific uncertainty about the ecology of salmon had made it impossible to develop effective scientifically
based management plans.
True
What year did the salmon fish season start lasting only 5-6 days?
1970
Before the start of each fishing season, fishery managers
establish either what two amounts to catch
fixed or variable amounts of total allowable catch.
These quotas are first distributed to who?
individual
fishers or fishing companies with a history of long-term participation in the fishery
Fishers with ITQs have a secure right to what?
to catch a set amount in a set area,
ITQs save fishers money by?
Not wasting money on bigger boats to compete
If fishers aren’t doing well they can sell what?
their quota
you can get itq for fish you catch now and…
fish you catch in the future
Alaskan ITQs main demographic is
family run fishing operations
Where else have ITQs used effectively
New Zealand
What does NMFS stand up for?
National Marine Fisheries Service
In 1990 where did it mostly affect?
particularly in the Northwest Atlantic region,
marine shelf ecosystems that stretch from the northeastern United States to southeast Canada except for?
a small area of Georges Bank on the Canadian side,
were historically among the world’s most productive.
The Northwest Atlantic fisheries
