S Flashcards
A rapid movement of the eyes that allows visual fixation to jump from one location to another in the visual field
- Once initiated, this cannot change course
Saccade
The smaller of the two vestibular sacs of the inner ear, the other being the utricle
- Like the utricle, it contains a sensory structure called a macula
- Movements of the head relative to gravity exert a momentum pressure on hair cells within the macula, which then fire impulses indicating a change in body position in space
Saccule
The derivation of pleasure through cruelty and inflicting pain, humiliation, and other forms of suffering on individuals
- The term generally denotes sexual type [Donatien Alphonse François, Comte (Marquis) de Sade (1740 - 1814), French soldier and writer]
Sadism
An emotional state of unhappiness, ranging in intensity from mild to extreme and usually aroused by the loss of something that is highly valued, for example, by the rupture or loss of a relationship
- Persistent type is one of the two defining symptoms of a major depressive episode, the other being anhedonia
Sadness
Sexual activity between consenting partners in which one partner enjoys inflicting pain and the other enjoys experiencing pain
Sadomasochism
A desire for freedom from illness or danger and for a secure, familiar, predictable environment
- These comprise the second level of Maslow’s Motivational Hierarchy, after basic physiological needs
Safety Need
Describing or relating to a plane that divides the body or an organ into left and right portions
- A midsagittal plane divides the body centrally into halves, whereas a parasagittal plane lies parallel but to one side of the center
Sagittal
Distinctive or prominent
- This type of stimulus in a multielement array will tend to be easily detected and identified
Salient
A type of conduction of nerve impulses that occurs in myelinated fibers, in which the impulses skip from one node of ranvier to the next
- This permits much faster conduction velocities compared with unmyelinated fibers
Saltation
A subset of a population of interest that is selected for study
- It is important to ensure that this is representative of the population as a whole
Sample
The process of selecting a limited number of subjects or cases for participation in experiments, surveys, or other research
- There are a number of different types (eg; simple random, stratified, opportunistic, quota), each having a different potential of obtaining a sample appropriately representative of the population under study
Sampling
Any flaws in sampling processes that makes the resulting sample unrepresentative of the population, hence possibly distorting research results
Sampling Bias
The predictable margin of error that occurs in studies employing sampling, as reflected in the variation in the estimate of a parameter from its true value in the population
Sampling Error
A complete listing of all of the elements in a population from which a sample is to be drawn
Sampling Frame
A sampling technique in which a selected unit is returned to the pool and may subsequently be redrawn in another sample
- In Sampling without Replacement the sampling unit is not returned to the pool
Sampling with Replacement
A punishment or other coercive measure, usually administered by a recognized authority, that is used to penalize and deter inappropriate or unauthorized actions
Sanction
- The full and complete satisfaction of a desire or need, such as hunger or thirst
- The temporary loss of effectiveness of a reinforcer due to its repeated presentation
Satiation
The purity of a color and the degree to which it departs from white
- Highly saturated colors are intense and brilliant, whereas colors of low saturation are diluted and dull
Saturation
A person with mental retardation or an Autistic Spectrum Disorder who demonstrates exceptional, usually isolated, cognitive abilities, such as rapid calculation, identifying the day of the week for any given date, or musical talent
- The term idiot savant initially was used to denote such a person but has been discarded because of its colloquial, pejorative connotation
Savant
A teaching style that supports and facilitates the student as he or she learns a new skill or concept, with the ultimate goal of the student becoming self reliant
- Derived from the theories of Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1896 - 1934), in practice it involves teaching material just beyond the level at which the student could learn alone
Scaffolding
One of the three canals that run the length of the cochlea in the inner ear
- Located between the scala vestibuli and scala tympani, it is filled with fluid (endolymph) and is delimited by Reissner’s membrane, the highly vascular stria vascularis, and the basilar membrane, which supports the organ of corti
Scala Media
One of the three canals within the cochlea in the inner ear
- It is located below the scala media, from which it is separated by the basilar membrane, and contains perilymph
- At its basal end is the round window
Scala Tympani
One of the three canals within the cochlea in the inner ear
- It is located above the scala media, from which it is separated by Reissner’s membrane, and contains perilymph
- At its basal end is the oval window
Scala Vestibuli
A system for arranging items in a progressive series, for example, according to their magnitude or value
- The characteristic of an item that allows it to fit into such a progression is called scalability
Scale
The process of constructing a scale to measure or assess some quantity or characteristic (eg; height, weight, happiness, empathy)
Scaling
Blaming: the process of directing one’s anger, frustration, and aggression onto other, usually less powerful, groups or individuals and targeting them as the source of one’s problems and misfortunes
Scapegoating
An analysis of prejudice that assumes that intergroup conflict is caused, in part, by the tendency of individuals to blame their negative experiences on other groups
Scapegoat Theory
A graphical representation of the relationship between two variables, in which the X axis represents one variable and the Y axis the other
- A dot or other symbol is placed at each point where the values of the variables intersect, and the overall pattern of symbols provides an indication of the correlation between the two variables
Scatterplot
The theory that experiencing emotional states is a function not only of physiological arousal but also cognitive interpretations of the physical state
- Also called two factor theory of emotion [Stanley Schachter (1922 - 1997) and Jerome E. Singer (1924 - ), U.S. psychologists]
Schachter Singer Theory
In conditioning, a rule that determines which instances of a response will be reinforced
- There are numerous types, among them fixed interval schedules, fixed ratio schedules, variable interval schedules, and variable ratio schedules
Schedule of Reinforcement
A post hoc statistical test that allows for the testing of all possible contrasts weighted comparisons of any number of means) while controlling the probability of a Type I Error for the set of contrasts at a prespecified level [Henry Scheffe (1907 - 1977), U.S. mathematician]
Scheffe Test
- A collection of basic knowledge about a concept or entity that serves as a guide to perception, interpretation, imagination, or problem solving
- For example, this of “dorm room” suggests that a bed and a desk are probably part of the scene, that a microwave oven might be, and that expensive Persian rugs probably will not be - An outlook or assumption that an individual has of the self, others, or the world that endures despite objective reality
- For example, “I am a damaged person” and “Anyone I trust will eventually hurt me” are negative ones that may result from negative experiences in early childhood
- A goal of treatment, particularly stressed in cognitive therapy, is to help the client to develop more realistic, present oriented ones to replace those developed during childhood or through traumatic experiences
Schema
A cognitive structure that contains an organized plan for an activity, thus representing generalized knowledge about an entity and serving to guide behavior
- For example, there is a simple sucking one of infancy, applied first to a nipple or teat and later to a thumb, soft toy, and so forth
- This term is often used as a synonym of schema
Scheme
An uninterrupted illness featuring at some time a major depressive episode, manic episode, or mixed episode concurrently with characteristic symptoms of schizophrenia (eg; delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, catatonic behavior)
Schizoaffective Disorder
Denoting characteristics resembling schizophrenia but in a milder form: characterized by lack of affect, social passivity, and minimal introspection
Schizoid
A personality disorder characterized by long term emotional coldness, indifference to praise or criticism and to the feelings of others, and inability to form close friendships with others
- The eccentricities of speech, behavior, or thought that are characteristic of schizotypal personality disorder are absent in those with this
Schizoid Personality Disorder
A psychotic disorder characterized by disturbances in thinking (cognition), emotional responsiveness, and behavior
- Originally named Dementia Praecox, this includes positive symptoms, such as delusions, hallucinations, and disorganized speech, and negative symptoms, such as lack of emotional responsiveness and extreme apathy
- These signs and symptoms are associated with marked social or occupational dysfunction
- There are five distinct subtypes: catatonic type, disorganized type, paranoid type, residual type, and undifferentiated type
Schizophrenia
A disorder whose essential features are identical to those of schizophrenia except that the total duration is between 1 and 6 months and social or occupational functioning need not be impaired
Schizophreniform Disorder
Denoting a factor or influence viewed as causing or contributing to the onset or development of schizophrenia
- For example, these parents are those whose harmful influences are presumed to cause schizophrenia in their offspring; this concept - the subject of much debate in the 1940s especially - is now considered an oversimplification
Schizophrenogenic
A personality disorder characterized by various oddities of thought, perception, speech, and behavior that are not severe enough to warrant a diagnosis of schizophrenia
- Symptoms may include perceptual distortions, magical thinking, social isolation, vague speech without incoherence, and inadequate rapport with others due to aloofness or lack of feeling
Schizotypal Personality Disorder
A test used in selecting candidates for college admission, formerly called the Scholastic Aptitude Test
- It tests ability to understand and analyze what is read and to recognize relationships between parts of a sentence; ability to solve problems involving arithmetic, algebra, and geometry; and ability to organize thoughts, develop and express ideas, use language, and adhere to grammatical rules
Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT)
Persistent reluctance to go to school, which is often a symptom of an educational, social, or emotional problem
- This may be a feature of separation anxiety disorder or it may be triggered by a stressor (eg; nausea, dizziness, headache) and anxiety at the start of the day along with complaints that the child is too sick to go to school
School Refusal
A type of nonneuronal peripheral nervous system cell (glia) that forms the myelin sheath around axons [Theodor Schwann (1810 - 1882), German histologist]
Schwann Cell
A group of procedures, guidelines, assumptions, and attitudes required for the organized and systematic collection, interpretation, and verification of data and the discovery of reproducible evidence, enabling laws and principles to be stated or modified
Scientific Method
The tough, white outer coat of the eyeball, which is continuous with the cornea at the front and the sheath of the optic nerve at the back of the eyeball
Sclera
A quantitative value assigned to test results or other measurable responses
Score
An area of partial or complete loss of vision either in the central visual field (central) or in the periphery (paracentral)
Scotoma
- A procedure or program to detect early signs of a disease in an individual or population
- The process of determining, through a preliminary test, whether an individual is suitable for some purpose or task
- For example, the initial evaluation of a patient to determine his or her suitability for medical or psychological treatment generally, a specific treatment approach, or referral to a treatment facility would constitute a screening
Screening
A cognitive schematic structure - a mental road map - containing the basic actions (and their temporal and causal relations) that comprise a complex action
- For example, this for cooking pasta might be: open pan cupboard, choose pan, fill pan with water, put pan on stove, get out pasta, weigh correct amount of pasta, add pasta to boiling water, decide when cooked, remove from heat, strain, place in bowl
Script
A mood disorder in which there is a predictable occurrence of major depressive episodes during the fall or winter months
Seasonal Affective Disorder
Changes due to biological aging, but accelerated by disabilities resulting from disease or produced by extrinsic factors, such as stress, trauma, lifestyle, and environment
- This is often distinguished from primary aging, which is governed by inborn and age related processes, but the distinction is not a precise one
Secondary Aging
Health care services provided by medical specialists (eg; cardiologists, urologists, dermatologists), to whom, typically, patients are referred by the primary care provider
Secondary Care
In Piagetian theory, a repetitive action emerging at around 4 to 5 months, such as rattling the crib, that has yielded results in the past but that the infant does not modify to meet the requirements of a new situation
Secondary Circular Reaction
An acquired drive; that is, a drive that is developed through association with or generalization from a primary drive
- For example, in an avoidance conditioning experiment in which a rat must go from one compartment into another to escape from an electric shock, this is fear of the shock and the primary drive with which it is associated is avoidance of pain
Secondary Drive
In psychoanalytic theory, any advantage derived from a neurosis in addition to the primary gains of relief from anxiety or internal conflict
- Examples are extra attention, sympathy, avoidance of work, and domination of others
- Such gains are secondary in that they are derived from others’ reactions to the illness instead of causal factors
Secondary Gain
One of the larger, less intimate, more goal focused groups typical of more complex societies, such as work groups, clubs, congregations, associations, and so on
- These social groups influence members’ attitudes, beliefs, and actions, but as a supplement to the influence of small, more interpersonally intensive primary groups
Secondary Group
Intervention for individuals or groups that demonstrate early psychological or physical symptoms, difficulties, or conditions (ie; subclinical level problems), which is intended to prevent the development of more serious dysfunction or illness
Secondary Prevention
In psychoanalytic theory, conscious, rational mental activities under the control of the ego and the reality principle
- These thought processes, which include problem solving, judgement, and systematic thinking, enable individuals to meet both the external demands of the environment and the internal demands of their instincts in rational, effective ways
Secondary Process
- In operant conditioning, the process in which a neutral stimulus acquires the ability to influence the future probability of a particular response by virtue of being paired with another stimulus that naturally enhances such probability
- That is, the initially neutral stimulus or circumstance functions as effective reinforcement only after special experience or training
- For example, a person teaching a dog to understand the command “sit” might provide a treat and a simultaneous pepping noise from a clicker tool each time the dogsuccessfully performs the behavior
- Eventually, the clicker noise itself can be used alone to maintain the desired behavior, with no treat reward being necessary - The contingent occurrence of such a stimulus or circumstance after a response
Secondary Reinforcement
Any of the regions of the cerebral cortex that receive direct projections from the primary sensory area for any given sense modality
- An example is the secondary somatosensory area
Secondary Sensory Area
An area of the cerebral cortex, located in the parietal lobe on the upper bank of the lateral sulcus, that receives direct projections from the primary somatosensory area and other regions of the anterior parietal cortex and has outputs to other parts of the lateral parietal cortex and to motor and premotor areas
Secondary Somatosensory Area
The area of cerebral cortex, located in the orbitofrontal cortex, that is the second cortical relay for taste
- It identifies gustatory stimuli as either pleasant and rewarding or unpleasant and undesirable
- This information interacts with analyses from visual, touch, and olfactory cells to permit an integrated appreciation of flavor
Secondary Taste Cortex
The area immediately surrounding the primary visual cortex in the occipital lobes, receiving signals from it secondarily for analysis and further discrimination of visual input in terms of motion, shape (particularly complex shapes), and position
Secondary Visual Cortex (V2)
An ion or molecule inside a cell whose concentration increases or decreases in response to stimulation of a cell receptor by a neurotransmitter, hormone, or drug
- This acts to relay and amplify the signal from the receptor (the “first messenger”) by triggering a range of cellular activities
Second Messenger
In Pavlovian conditioning, the establishment of a conditioned response as a result of pairing a neutral stimulus with a conditioned stimulus that gained its effectiveness by being paired with an unconditioned stimulus
Second Order Conditioning
A schedule of reinforcement in which the units counted are not single responses but completions of a particular reinforcement schedule
- For example, in a second order fixed ratio 5 of fixed interval 30 seconds schedule [FR 5 (FI 30 s)], reinforcement is delivered only after five successive FI 30-s schedules have been completed
- Often, a brief stimulus of some sort is presented on completion of each unit schedule
Second Order Schedule
The main trend or long term direction of a time series, as distinguished from temporary variations
Secular Trend
- In the strange situation, the positive parent child relationship, in which the child displays confidence when the parent is present, shows mild distress when the parent leaves, and quickly reestablishes contact when the parent returns
- An adult attachment style that combines a positive view of oneself as worthy of love, and a positive view that others are generally accepting and responsive
Secure Attachment
The observation that infants use a place of safety, represented by an attachment figure (eg; a parent), as a base from which to explore a novel environment
- The infant often returns or looks back to the parent before continuing a explore
Secure Base Phenomenon
A drug that has a calming effect, and therefore relieves anxiety, agitation, or behavioral excitement, by depressing the central nervous system
- The degree of sedation depends on the agent and the size of the dose: A drug that sedates in small doses may induce sleep in larger doses Lind may be used as a hypnotic; such drugs are commonly known as sedative hypnotics
Sedative
The separation or isolation of people (eg; ethnic groups) or other entities (eg; mental processes) so that there is a minimum of interaction between them
Segregation
A discrete episode of uncontrolled, excessive electrical discharge of neurons in the brain
- The resulting clinical symptoms vary based on the type and location of it
Seizure
In animal behavior, the differential survival of some individuals and their offspring compared with others, causing certain physical or behavioral traits to be favored in subsequent generations
- The general process is known as natural selection
Selection
A systematic and directional error in the choosing of participants or other units for research, such as selecting specially motivated participants
- This is associated with nonrandom sampling and with nonrandom assignment to conditions
Selection Bias
The observation that perceptual adaptation can occur in response to certain stimulus qualities while being unaffected by others
- For example, color adaptation can take place independently of motion adaptation
Selective Adaptation
Concentration on certain stimuli in the environment and not others, enabling important stimuli to be distinguished from peripheral or incidental ones
- This is typically measured by instructing participants to attend to some sources of information while ignoring others and then determining their effectiveness in doing this
Selective Attention
A rare disorder, most commonly but not exclusively found in young children, characterized by a persistent failure to speak in certain social situations (eg; at school) despite the ability to speak and to understand spoken language
- Currently, this is thought to be related to severe anxiety and social phobia, but the exact cause is unknown
Selective Mutism
A process used to adapt to biological and psychological deficits associated with aging
- The process involves emphasizing and enhancing those capacities affected only minimally by aging (optimization) and developing new means of maintaining functioning in those areas that are significantly affected (compensation)
Selective Optimization with Compensation
The totality of the individual, consisting of all characteristic attributes, conscious and unconscious, mental and physical
- Apart from its basic reference to personal identity, being, and experience, the term’s use in psychology is extremely wide ranging and lacks uniformity, including, for example, the following perspectives: the person as the target of self appraisal or as having the power and capability to produce an effect or exert influence; the person as he or she gradually develops by a process of individuation; the individual identified with a lifestyle; and the essence of the individual, consisting of a gradually developing body sense, identity, self estimate, and set of personal values, attitudes, and intentions
Self
A relatively objective sense or recognition of one’s abilities and achievements, together with acknowledgement and acceptance of one’s limitations
- This is often viewed as a major component of mental health
Self Acceptance
The complete realization of that of which one is capable, involving maximum development of abilities and full involvement in and appreciation for life, particularly as manifest in peak experiences
- The term is associated particularly with the humanistic psychology of U.S. psychologist Abraham Maslow (1908 - 1970), who viewed the process of striving toward full potential as fundamental yet obtainable only after the basic needs of physical survival, safety, love and belongingness, and esteem are fulfilled
Self Actualization
Any behavior by which a person expresses a positive attitude toward his or her self, often by a positive assertion of his or her values, attributes, or group memberships
- Self Affirmation Theory assumes that the desire for this is basic and pervasive and that many different behaviors reflect this motive
- According to the theory, people are motivated to maintain views of themselves as well adapted, moral, and competent
- when some aspect of this self view is challenged, people experience psychological discomfort which they attempt to reduce by directly resolving the inconsistency or by affirming some other aspect of the self
Self Affirmation
Self focused attention or knowledge
- There has been a continuing controversy over whether nonhuman animals have this
- Evidence of this in animals most often is determined by whether an individual can use a mirror to groom an otherwise unseen spot on its own forehead
Self Awareness
Any hypothetical construct that attempts to describe how self focused attention occurs and what purpose it serves
- Distinctions are sometimes made between subjective self awareness, arising directly from the observation and experience of oneself as the source of perception and behavior, and objective self awareness, arising from comparison between the self and (a) the behaviors, attitudes, and traits of others or (b) some perceived standard for social correctness in any one of these areas
Self Awareness Theory
The degree to which different aspects of the self concept are disconnected from one another
- Low amounts entail considerable integration; high amounts result from compartmentalization, so that what affects one part of the self may not affect other parts
Self Complexity
One’s description and evaluation of oneself, including psychological and physical characteristics, qualities, and skills
- This contributes to the individual’s sense of identity over time and is dependent in part on unconscious schematization of the self
Self Concept
An emotion that celebrates or condemns the self and its actions, generated when the self is known to be the object of another person’s evaluation
- These include shame, pride, guilt, and embarrassment
- Recently, the term other conscious emotions has been suggested as a better name for these emotions, to emphasize the importance of the appraisal of other human beings in generating them
Self Conscious Emotion
- A personality trait associated with the tendency to reflect on or think about oneself
- Some researchers have distinguished between two varieties: (a) private, or the degree to which people think about private, internal aspects of themselves (eg; their own thoughts, motives, and feelings) that are not directly open to observation by others; and (b) public, or the degree to which people think about public, external aspects of themselves (eg; their physical appearance, mannerisms, and overt behavior) that can be observed by others - Extreme sensitivity about one’s own behavior, appearance, or other attributes and excessive concern about the impression one makes on others, which leads to embarrassment or awkwardness in the presence of others
Self Consciousness
The examination and evaluation of one’s behavior, with recognition of one’s weaknesses, errors, and shortcomings
- This can have both positive and negative effects; for example, a tendency toward harsh ones is thought by some to be a risk factor for depression
Self Criticism
The process or result of convincing oneself of the truth of something that is false or invalid, particularly the overestimation of one’s abilities and concurrent failure to recognize one’s own limitations
Self Deception
Actions by an individual that invite failure or misfortune and thus prevent him or her from attaining goals or fulfilling desires
- An example is a college student procrastinating about studying and subsequently getting a poor grade on an important exam
Self Defeating Behavior
The process or result of engaging in behaviors without interference or undue influence from other people or external demands
- This refers particularly to behaviors that improve one’s circumstances, including choice making, problem solving, self management, self instruction, and self advocacy
Self Determination
The act of revealing highly private information about one’s self to other people
- In psychotherapy, the revelation and expression by the client of personal, innermost feelings, fantasies, experiences, and aspirations is believed by many to be a requisite for therapeutic change and personal growth
Self Disclosure
An incongruence between different aspects of one’s self concept, particularly between one’s actual self and either the ideal self or the ought self
Self Discrepancy
An individual’s capacity to get effectively to bring about desired results, especially as perceived by the individual
Self Efficacy
Any strategic behavior designed to increase esteem, either self esteem or the esteem of others
- This can take the form of pursuing success or merely distorting events to make them seen to reflect better on the self
Self Enhancement
The desire to think well of oneself and to be well regarded by others
- This motive causes people to prefer favorable, flattering feedback rather than accurate but possibly unfavorable information
Self Enhancement Motive
The degree to which the qualities and characteristics contained in one’s self concept are perceived to be positive
- It reflects a person’s physical self image, view of his or her accomplishments and capabilities, and values and perceived success in living up to them, as well as the ways in which others view and respond to that person
- The more positive the cumulative perception of these qualities and characteristics, the higher one’s self esteem
- A high or reasonable degree of this is considered an important ingredient of mental health, whereas low self esteem and feelings of worthlessness are common depressive symptoms
Self Esteem
A conceptual analysis of group affiliations that assumes that an individual maintains and enhances self esteem by (a) associating with high achieving individuals who excel in areas with low relevance to his or her sense of self worth and (b) avoiding association with high achieving individuals who excel in areas that are personally important to him or her
Self Evaluation Maintenance Model
A belief or expectation that helps to bring about its own fulfillment, as, for example, when a person expects nervousness to impair his or her performance in a job interview or when a teacher’s preconceptions about a student’s ability influence the child’s achievement
Self Fulfilling Prophecy
A strategy of creating obstacles to one’s performance, so that future anticipated failure can be blamed on the obstacle rather than one’s own lack of ability
- If one succeeds despite the handicap, it brings extra credit or glory to the self
- The theory originally was proposed to explain alcohol and drug abuse among seemingly successful individuals
Self Handicapping
A group composed of individuals who meet on a regular basis to help one another cope with a common life problem
- Unlike therapy groups, these are not led by professionals, do not charge a fee for service, and do not place a limit on the number of members
- They provide many benefits that professionals cannot provide, including friendship, emotional support, experiential knowledge, identity, meaningful roles, and a sense of belonging
- Examples of these are Alcoholics Anonymous, Compassionate Friends, and Recovery, Inc
Self Help Group
The process of putting oneself into a trance or trancelike state, sometimes spontaneously but typically through autosuggestion
Self Hypnosis
The process of putting oneself into a trance or trancelike state, sometimes spontaneously but typically through autosuggestion
Self Hypnosis
One’s own view or concept of oneself
- This is a crucial aspect of an individual’s personality that can determine the success of relationships and a sense of general well being
- A negative one is often a cause of dysfunctions and of self abusive, self defeating, or destructive behavior
Self Image
A form of cognitive behavior therapy that aims to modify maladaptive beliefs and cognitions and develop new skills in an individual
- In therapy, the therapist identifies the client’s maladaptive thoughts (eg; “everybody hates me’) and models appropriate behavior while giving spoken constructive self instructions (or self statements)
- The client then copies the behavior while repeating these instructions aloud
Self Instructional Training
An individual’s control of his or her own behavior, particularly regarding the pursuit of a specific objective (eg; weight loss)
- This is usually considered a desirable aspect for the individual personally and within the social setting, but some forms of this may be detrimental to mental and physical health
- Psychotherapy and counseling often seek to provide methods of identifying the latter and modifying them into the former
Self Management
- A method used in behavioral management in which individuals keep a record of their behavior (eg; time spent, place of occurrence, form of the behavior, feelings during performance), especially in connection with efforts to change or regulate the self
- A personality trait reflecting an ability to modify one’s behavior in response to situational pressures, opportunities, and norms
- High self monitors are typically more in tune with the demands of the situation, whereas low self monitors tend to be more in tune with their internal feelings
Self Monitoring
A theory postulating that people often have only limited access to their altitudes, beliefs, traits, or psychological states
- In such cases, people must attempt to infer the nature of these internal cues in a manner similar to the inference processes they use when making judgements about other people (ie; by considering past behaviors)
Self Perception Theory
Any behaviors designed to convey a particular image of, or particular information about, the self to other people
- Some common strategies of this include exemplification (inducing others to regard one as a highly moral, virtuous person), self promotion (highlighting or exaggerating one’s competence and abilities), and supplication (depicting oneself as weak, needy, or dependent)
Self Presentation
Any strategic behavior that is designed to avoid losing esteem, either self esteem or the esteem of others
- This fosters a risk avoidant orientation and is often contrasted with self enhancement
Self Protection
The widespread tendency for individuals to have a superior or enhanced memory for stimuli that relate to the self or self concept
Self Reference Effect
The control of one’s own behavior through the use of self monitoring (keeping a record of behavior), self evaluation assessing the information obtained during self monitoring), and self reinforcement (rewarding oneself for appropriate behavior or for attaining a goal)
- These processes are stressed in behavior therapy
Self Regulation
The rewarding of oneself for appropriate behavior or the achievement of a desired goal
- The self reward may be, for example, buying a treat after studying for an exam
Self Reinforcement
A statement or series of answers to questions provided by an individual as to his or her state, feelings, beliefs, and so forth
- These methods rely on the honesty and self awareness of the participant and are used especially to measure behaviors or traits that cannot easily be directly observed
Self Report
A cognitive framework comprising organized information and beliefs about the self that guides a person’s perception of the world, influencing what information draws the individual’s attention as well as how that information is evaluated and retained
Self Schema
The tendency to interpret events in a way that assigns credit to the self for any success but denies the self’s responsibility for any failure, which is blamed on external factors
- This is regarded as a form of self deception designed to maintain high self esteem
Self Serving Bias
The attainment of knowledge about and insight into one’s characteristics, including attitudes, motives, behavioral tendencies, strengths, and weaknesses
- The achievement of this is one of the major goals of certain forms of psychotherapy
Self Understanding
An individual’s evaluation of himself or herself as a valuable, capable human being deserving of respect and consideration
- Positive feelings of this tend to be associated with a high degree of self acceptance and self esteem
Self Worth
A selective, progressive impairment in semantic memory, leading to difficulties in naming, comprehension of words and their appropriate use in conversation, and appreciation and use of objects
- The syndrome results from focal degeneration of specific regions of the temporal lobes
Semantic Dementia
A technique used to explore the connotative meaning that certain words or concepts have for the individuals being questioned
- Participants are asked to rate the word or concept on a seven point scale with reference to pairs of opposites, such as good bad, beautiful ugly, hot cold, big small, and so on
- Responses are then averaged or summed to arrive at a final index of attitudes
- This procedure is one of the most widely used methods of assessing altitudes
Semantic Differential
Cognitive encoding of new information that focuses on the meaningful aspects of the material as opposed to its perceptual characteristics
- This will usually involve some form of elaboration
Semantic Encoding
The property of language that allows it to represent events, ideas, actions, and objects symbolically, thereby endowing it with the capacity to communicate meaning
Semanticity
Memory for general knowledge or meanings, of the kind that allows people to name and categorize the things they see
- According to some theories, this is a form of declarative memory, that is, information that can be consciously recalled and related
Semantic Memory
A data structure used to capture conceptual relationships
- Created by the artificial intelligence research community, this system has been used in an attempt to model human information storage (particularly the means by which words are connected to meanings and associations in long term memory), with latencies in retrieval times supposedly reflecting the length of the path of the network searched for the required response
Semantic Network
An effect in which the processing of a stimulus is found to be more efficient after the earlier processing of a meaningfully related stimulus, as opposed to an unrelated or perceptually related stimulus
- For example, responses to the word nurse would be faster following doctor than following purse
Semantic Priming
- The study of meaning in language, as opposed to the study of formal relationships (grammar) or sound systems (phonology)
- Aspects of language that have to do with meaning, as distinguished from syntactics
Semantics
A set of three looped tubular channels in the inner ear that detect movements of the head and provide the sense of dynamic equilibrium that is essential for maintaining balance
- They form part of the vestibular apparatus
- The channels are filled with fluid (endolymph) and are oriented roughly at right angles to each other
- Hence they can monitor movements in each of three different planes
- Each canal has an enlarged portion, the ampulla, inside which is a sensory structure called a crista
- This consists of hair cells whose processes are embedded in a gelatinous cap (the cupula)
- When the head moves in a certain plane, endolymph flows through the corresponding canal, displacing the cupola and causing the hairs to bend
- This triggers the hair cells to fire nerve impulses, thus sending messages to the brain about the direction and rate of movement
Semicircular Canals
The study of verbal and nonverbal signs and of the ways in which they communicate meaning within particular sign systems
- Unlike semantics, which restricts itself to the meanings expressed in language, this is concerned with human symbolic activity generally and premised on the view that signs can only generate meanings within a pattern of relationships to other signs
Semiotics
The biological process of growing old, or the period during which this process occurs
Senescence
Associated with advanced age, particularly referring to dementia or any other cognitive or behavioral deterioration relating to old age
Senile
A clump of beta amyloid protein surrounded by degenerated dendrites that is particularly associated with symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease
- Increased concentration of these in the cerebral cortex of the brain is correlated with the severity of dementia
Senile Plaque
An approach to problems of sexual dysfunction in which people are trained to focus attention on their own natural, biological sensual cues and gradually achieve the freedom to enjoy sensory stimuli
- The procedures involve prescribed body massage exercises designed to give and receive pleasure, first not involving breasts and genitals, and then moving to these areas
- This eliminates performance anxiety about arousal and allows the clients to relax and enjoy the sensual experience of body caressing without the need to achieve erection or orgasm
Sensate Focus
An irreducible unit of experience produced by stimulation of a sensory receptor and the resultant activation of a specific brain center, producing basic awareness of a sound, odor, color, shape, or taste or of temperature, pressure, pain, muscular tension, position of the body, or change in the internal organs associated with such processes as hunger, thirst, nausea, and sexual excitement
Sensation
The tendency to search out and engage in thrilling activities as a method of increasing stimulation and arousal
- Limited to human populations, it typically takes the form of engaging in highly stimulating activities accompanied by a perception of danger, such as skydiving or race car driving
Sensation Seeking
Any of the media through which one gathers information about the external environment or about the state of one’s body in relation to this
- They include the five primary ones - vision, hearing, taste, touch, and smell - as well as the ones of pressure, pain, temperature, kinethesis, and equilibrium
- Each of these has its own receptors, responds to characteristic stimuli, and has its own pathways to a specific part of the brain
Sense
A stage in development when an organism can most advantageously acquire necessary skills or characteristics
- For example, in humans the 1st year of life is considered significant for the development of a secure attachment bond
- It is important to note, however, that lack of appropriate growth dependent experiences during this does not permanently and irreversibly impact development, as it would during a critical period, but rather makes the acquisition process outside the period more difficult
Sensitive Period
- The capacity to detect and discriminate
- More specifically, the ability of a cell, tissue, or organism to respond to changes in its external or internal environment: a fundamental property of all living organisms - The probability that a test gives a positive diagnosis given that the individual actually has the condition for which he or she is being tested
Sensitivity
A group process employed in human relations training that is focused on the development of self awareness, productive interpersonal relations, and sensitivity to the feelings, attitudes, and needs of others
- The primary method used in this is free, unstructured discussion with a leader functioning as an observer and facilitator, although other techniques, such as role play, may be used
Sensitivity Training
The increased effectiveness of an eliciting stimulus as a function of its repeated presentation
- Water torture, in which water is dripped incessantly onto a person’s forehead, is a good example
Sensitization
In Piagetian theory, the first major stage of cognitive development, extending from birth through the first 2 years of life
- This is characterized by the development of sensory and motor processes and by the infant’s first knowledge of the world acquired by interacting with the environment
Sensorimotor Stage
Relating to the senses, to sensation, or to a part or all of the neural apparatus and its supporting structures that are involved in any of these
Sensory
The reduction of sensory stimulation to a minimum in the absence of normal contact with the environment
- This may be experimentally induced (eg; via the use of a sensory deprivation chamber) for research purposes or it may occur in a real life situation (eg; in deep sea diving)
- Although short periods of this can be beneficial, extended periods has detrimental effects, causing (among other things) hallucinations, delusions, hypersuggestibility, or panic
Sensory Deprivation
The integration of sensory processes in performing a task, as in maintaining balance using sensory input from both vision and proprioception
Sensory Interaction
Brief storage of information from each of the senses in a relatively unprocessed form beyond the duration of a stimulus, for recoding into another memory (such as short tem memory) or for comprehension
- For instance, this for visual stimuli, called iconic memory, holds a visual image for less than a second, whereas that for auditory stimuli, called echoic memory, retains sounds for a little longer
Sensory Memory
A neuron that receives information from the environment, via specialized receptor cells, und transmit this - in the form of nerve impulses - through synapses with other neurons to the central nervous system
Sensory Neuron
A state in which the senses are overwhelmed with stimuli, to the point that the person is unable to process or respond to all of them
Sensory Overload
The total structure involved in sensation, including the sense organs and their receptors, efferent sensory neurons, and sensory areas in the cerebral cortex at which these tracts terminate
- There are separate systems for each of the senses
1. Auditory System
2. Gustatory System
3. Olfactory System
4. Somatosensory System
5. Visual System
6. Vestibular System
Sensory System
A language ability test in which the participant must complete an unfinished sentence by filling in the specific missing word or phrase
- However, the test is used more often to evaluate personality, in which case the participant is presented with an introductory phrase to which he or she may respond in any way
- An example might be “Today I an in a ____ mood”
Sentence Completion Test
An anxiety disorder occurring in childhood or adoresence that is characterized by developmentally inappropriate, persistent, and excessive anxiety about separation from the home or from major attachment figures
- Other features may include worry about harm coming to attachment figures, school refusal, fear of being alone, nightmares, and repeated complaints of physical symptoms (eg; headaches, stomachaches) associated with anticipated separation
Separation Anxiety Disorder
The developmental phase in which the infant gradually differentiates himself or herself from the mother, develops awareness of his or her separate identity, and attains relatively autonomous status
Separation Individuation
A residual effect of an illness or injury, or of an unhealthy or unstable mental condition, often (but not necessarily) in the form of persistent or permanent impairment
- For example, flashbacks may be this of traumatic stress
Sequela
In within subjects designs, the effect of the treatments being administered in a particular sequence (eg; the sequence ABC versus ACB, versus BCA, and so forth)
- This is often confused with the order effect
Sequence Effect
A class of statistical procedures in which a decision as to whether to continue collecting data is made as the experiment progresses
- This approach is contrasted with studies in which the sample size is determined in advance and data are not analyzed until the entire sample is collected
Sequential Analysis
Any quasi experimental research in which participants of different ages are compared repeatedly over time to elucidate or untangle causes of developmental change
- These thus combine aspects of cross sectional designs, longitudinal designs, and potentially time lag designs into a single study so as to maximize the benefits of each approach while minimizing the weaknesses
- A cross sequential design provides an example of this type of research scheme
Sequential Design
The learning of a sequence of items or responses in the precise order of their presentation
- For example, actors must learn their lines in a sequence
Serial Learning
A graphic representation of the number of items that can be remembered as a function of the order in which they were presented
- Items at the beginning and end of the list are usually remembered best, thus producing a U shaped memory curve
Serial Position Curve
The effect of an item’s position in a list of items to be learned on how well it is remembered
- The classic type shows best recall of the first items from a list (primacy effect) and good recall of the list items (recency effect), while the middle items are less well recalled
Serial Position Effect
Information processing in which only one sequence of processing operations is carried on at a time
- Those who hold that the human information processing system operates in this way argue that the mind’s apparent ability to carry on different cognitive functions simultaneously is explained by rapid shifts between different information sources
Serial Processing
A memory research technique in which one person reads a set of information before reproducing it for another person, who then reproduces it for a third person, who does the same for a fourth, and so on
- This is widely regarded as a model for the social communication of retained information, and as such is an important experimental tool in the analysis of rumor and gossip transmission, stereotype formation, and similar phenomenon
Serial Reproduction
The process of arranging a collection of items into a specific order (series) on the basis of a particular dimension (eg; size)
- According to Piagetian theory, this ability is necessary for understanding the concepts of number, time, and measurement and is acquired by children during the concrete operational stage
Seriation
Responding to, releasing, or otherwise involving serotonin
- For example, this type of neuron is one that employs serotonin as a neurotransmitter
Serotonergic
A common monoamine neurotransmitter in the brain and other parts of the central nervous system, also found in the gastrointestinal tract, in smooth muscles of the cardiovascular and bronchial systems, and in blood platelets
- It is synthesized from the dietary amino acid L-tryptophan, and in the pineal gland it is converted to melatonin
- This has roles in numerous bioregulatory processes, including mood, appetite, pain, and sleep, and is implicated in many psychopathological conditions
Serotonin
A temporary readiness to respond in a certain way to a specific situation or stimulus
- For example, a sprinter gets set to run when the starting gun fires (a motor set); a parent is set to hear his or her baby cry from the next room (a perceptual set); a poker player is set to use a tactic that has been successful in other games (a mental set)
Set
As applied to physiological and behavioral systems, the preferred level of functioning of an organism or of a system within an organism
- When this is exceeded (ie; when physiological responses become higher than this), compensatory events take place to reduce functioning; when this is not reached, compensatory processes take place to help the organism or system reach it
Set Point
- The traits that distinguish between males and females
- This refers especially to physical and biological traits, whereas gender refers especially to social or cultural traits, although the distinction between the two terms is not regularly observed - The physiological and psychological processes related to procreation and erotic pleasure
Sex
Any of the traits associated with sex identity
- Primary ones (eg; testes in males, ovaries in females) are directly involved in reproduction of the species
- Secondary ones are features not directly concerned with reproduction, such as voice quality, facial hair, and breast size
Sex Characteristic
A chromosome that determines the sex of an individual
- Humans and other mammals have two: the X chromosome, which carries genes for certain sexual traits and occurs in both females and males; and the smaller Y chromosome, which is normally found only in males
- Disease genes that are carried only on this (usually the X chromosome) are responsible for sex linked inherited conditions
Sex Chromosome
The differences in physical features between males and females
- These include differences in brain structures as well as differences in primary and secondary sex characteristics
- The term is also used to denote what are more properly called gender differences, the differences between males and females in the way they behave and think
Sex Differences
Any of the hormones that stimulate various reproductive functions
- Primary sources of these are the male and female gonads (ie; testis and ovary), which are stimulated to produce these by the pituitary hormones follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone
- The principal male ones (androgens) include testosterone; female ones include the estrogens and progesterone
Sex Hormone
Discriminatory and prejudicial beliefs and practices directed against one of the two sexes, usually women
- This is associated with acceptance of sex role stereotypes and can occur at multiple levels: individual, organizational, institutional, and cultural
- It may be overt, involving the open endorsement of sexist beliefs or attitudes; covert, involving the tendency to hide sexist beliefs or attitudes and reveal them only when it is believed that one will not suffer publicly for them; or subtle, involving unequal treatment that may not be noticed because it is part of everyday behavior or perceived to be of low importance
Sexism
Describing a gene that is located on one of the sex chromosomes, usually the X chromosome (X linked), or a trait determined by such a gene
- These diseases, such as hemophilia, generally affect only males, because the defective gene is usually a recessive allele
- In females, who have two X chromosomes, it would be masked by the normal, dominant allele on the other X chromosome
- In males, with just a single X chromosome, any of these defective alleles are expressed
Sex Linked
The behavior and altitudinal patterns characteristically associated with being male or female as defined in a given society
- These thus reflect the interaction between biological heritage and the pressures of socialization, and individuals differ greatly in the extent to which they manifest typical behavior of this
Sex Role
Violation or exploitation by sexual means
- Although the term typically is used with reference to any sexual contact between adults and children, this can also occur in other relationships of trust
Sexual Abuse
Negative emotional reactions (eg; anxiety, fear, or disgust) to sexual activity, leading to active avoidance of it and causing distress in the individual or his or her partner
Sexual Aversion Disorder
The existence within a species of males and females that differ distinctly from each other in form
Sexual Dimorphism
Any impairment of sexual function or behavior
- These include sexual dysfunction and paraphilias
Sexual Disorder
A category of sexual disorders characterized by problems in one or more phases of the sexual response cycle
- These include hypoactive sexual desire disorder, sexual aversion disorder, female sexual arousal disorder, male erectile disorder, premature ejaculation, male orgasmic disorder, female orgasmic disorder, dyspareunia, and vaginismus
Sexual Dysfunction
Conduct of a sexual nature that is unwelcome or considered offensive, particularly in the workplace
- According to the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), there are two forms of this: quid pro quo, compliance with sexual demands in return for positive employment consequences, and behavior that makes for a hostile work environment
Sexual Harassment
The individual’s internal identification with heterosexual, homosexual, or bisexual preference, that is, with his or her sexual orientation
Sexual Identity
In psychoanalytic theory, the instinct comprising all the erotic drives and sublimations of such drives
- It includes not only genital sex, but also anal and oral manifestations and the channeling of erotic energy into artistic, scientific, and other pursuits
- In his later formulations, Austrian psychiatrist Sigmund Freud (1856 - 1939) saw this as part of a wider life instinct that also included the self preservative impulses of hunger, thirst, and elimination
Sexual Instinct
- All aspects of sexual behavior, including gender identity, orientation, attitudes, and activity as well as interest in and the capacity to derive pleasure from such behavior
- In psychoanalytic theory, see infantile sexuality
Sexuality
A nucleus (mass of cell bodies) of the central nervous system that differs in size between males and females
- In humans, for example, a nucleus in the medial preoptic area of the hypothalamus that synthesizes gonadotropin releasing hormone tends to be larger and more active in males then in females because gonadotropin release is continuous (it is cyclical in females)
Sexually Dimorphic Nucleus
An infection transmitted by sexual activity
- Numerous ones have been identified, including those caused by viruses (eg; hepatitis B, herpes, and HIV) and those caused by bacteria (eg; chlamydia, gonorrhea, and syphilis)
Sexually Transmitted Disease (STD)
A paraphilia in which sexual interest and arousal is repeatedly or exclusively achieved through being humiliated, bound, beaten, or otherwise made to suffer physical harm or threat to life
Sexual Masochism
One’s enduring sexual attraction to male partners, female partners, or both
- This may be heterosexual, same sex (gay or lesbian), or bisexual
Sexual Orientation
A four stage cycle of sexual response that is exhibited by both men and women, differing only in aspects determined by male or female anatomy
- The stages include the arousal (or excitement) phase; the plateau phase, marked by penile erection in men and vaginal lubrication in women; the orgasmic phase, marked by ejaculation in men and orgasm in women; and the resolution phase
Sexual Response Cycle
A paraphilia in which sexual excitement is achieved by intentional infliction of physical or psychological suffering on another person
- When practiced with nenconsenting partners, the severity of the acts often increases over time
Sexual Sadism
A theoretical mechanism for the evolution of anatomical and behavioral differences between males and females, based on the selection of mates
Sexual Selection
In cognitive testing, a task in which a participant repeats aloud a message word for word at the same time that the message is being presented, often with other stimuli being presented in the background
- It is mainly used in studies of attention
Shadowing
The neurological consequences of a form of child abuse in which a small child or infant is repeatedly shaken
- The shaking causes diffuse, widespread damage to the brain; in severe cases it may cause death
Shaken Baby Syndrome
Significant reduction in appropriate emotional responses to situations and events
Shallow Affect
Cognitive processing of a stimulus that focus on its superficial, perceptual characteristics rather than its meaning
- It is considered that processing at this shallow level produces weaker, shorter lasting memories than deep processing
Shallow Processing
A highly unpleasant self conscious emotion arising from the sense of there being something dishonorable, ridiculous, immodest, or indecorous in one’s conduct or circumstances
- It is typically characterized by withdrawal from social intercourse but may also motivate defensive, retaliative anger
- Psychological research consistently reports a relationship between proneness to this and a whole host of psychological symptoms, including depression, anxiety, eating disorders, subclinical sociopathy, and low self esteem
Shame
Sudden aggressive behavior and motor activity occurring disproportionally in response to a weak or relatively innocuous stimulus
- This initially was observed by researchers in the 1920s: following surgical decortication, cats responded to the touch of a hand by growling, spitting, lashing the tail, arching the back, protracting the claws, erecting the hairs, jerking the limbs, rapidly moving the head from side to side, and attempting to bite
- It subsequently has been demonstrated to occur with direct electrical stimulation of the limbic system as well
- Additionally, this has been seen in some pathological human conditions involving similar damage to the cerebral cortex that removes its inhibitory influence over the activities of the hypothalamus and other deeper, more primitive structures
Sham Rage
In experiments using surgical interventions, surgery that functions as a control because it mimics the features of the experimental surgery but does not result in the alteration or removal of any bodily structures, that is, it does not have the systemic effects of the experimental procedure
Sham Surgery
A type of perceptual constancy in which an object is perceived as having the same shape when viewed at different angles
- For example, a plate is still perceived as circular despite changes in its appearance when viewed from above, below, the side, and so forth
Shape Constancy
The production of new forms of operant behavior by reinforcement of successive approximations to the behavior
Shaping
In behavioral genetics analyses, those aspects of an environment that individuals living together (eg; biologically related individuals in a family household) share and that therefore cause them to become more similar to each other than would be expected on the basis of genetic influences alone
- Examples of these factors include parental child rearing style, divorce, or family income and related variables
Shared Environment
A rare disorder in which the essential feature is an identical or similar delusion that develops in an individual who is involved with another individual who already has a psychotic disorder with prominent delusions
- This can involve many people (eg; an entire family), but is most commonly seen in relationships of only two, in which case it is known as folie à deux
Shared Psychotic Disorder
A work oriented rehabilitation facility for individuals with disabilities that provides a controlled, noncompetitive, supportive working environment and individually designed work settings, using work experience and related services to assist individuals with disabilities to achieve specific vocational goals
Sheltered Workshop
A temporary information storage system, enabling one to retain, reproduce, recognize, or recall a limited amount of material after a period of about 10-30s
- This is often theorized to be separate from long term memory, and the two are the components of the dual store model of memory
Short Term Memory (STM)
Competition among two or more children in a family for the attention, approval, or affection of one or both parents or for other recognition or rewards, for example, in sports or school grades
Sibling Rivalry
The behavior expected of a person who is physically ill, mentally ill, or injured
- Such expectations can be the individual’s own or those of the family, the community, or society in general
- They influence both how the person behaves and how others will react to him or her
- For instance, people with this are expected to cooperate with caregivers and to want to get well but are also provided with an exemption from normal obligations
Sick Role
Any reaction secondary to the intended therapeutic effect that may occur following administration of a drug or other treatment
- Often these are undesirable but tolerable (eg; headache or fatigue), although more serious ones (eg; liver failure, seizures) may also occur
Side Effect
- An objective, observable indication of a disorder or disease
- In linguistics and semiotics, anything that conveys meaning; this may be either verbal (eg; a spoken or written word) or nonverbal (eg; a hairstyle)
- The term is now mainly associated with approaches deriving from the theory of Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (1857 - 1913), who emphasized the arbitrary nature of linguistic ones (ie; the lack of any necessary relationship between the material signifier and the idea signified)
- The application of this idea to nonlinguistic sign systems provided the basic method of structuralism in the social sciences
Sign
A body of concepts and techniques from communication theory, electrical engineering, and decision theory that were applied to auditory and visual psychophysics in the late 1950s and are now widely used in many areas of psychology
- This has provided a valuable theoretical framework for describing perceptual and other aspects of cognition and for quantitatively relating psychophysical phenomena to findings from sensory physiology
- A key notion of this is that human performance in many tasks is limited by variability in the internal representation of stimuli due to internal or external noise
Signal Detection Theory (SDT)
The ratio of signal power (intensity) to noise power, usually expressed in decibels
- When the signal is speech, it is called the speech to noise ratio
Signal to Noise Ratio
The degree or extent to which something is meaningful or of consequence
- In mathematics and related fields, the term denotes statistical significance
Significance
In null hypothesis significance testing, the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is in fact true (ie; of making a Type I error)
- It is set at some criterion, usually .01 or .05, and the actual value for a particular test is denoted p
- Thus when the p value is less than the criterion, the null hypothesis is rejected
Significance Level
A set of procedures that are used to differentiate between two models
- In the most common form of this, one model (the null hypothesis) specifies a condition in which the treatment being studied has no effect and the other model (the alternative hypothesis) specifies that the treatment has some effect
Significance Testing
The situation in which a significance testing procedure indicates that the two models being compared are legitimately different and do not reflect chance variation
Significant Difference
Any individual who has a profound influence on a person, particularly his or her self image and socialization
- Although the term most often denotes a spouse or other person with whom one has a committed sexual relationship, it is also used to refer to parents, peers, and others
Significant Other
Any system of communication in which signs formed by hand configuration and movement are used instead of spoken language
- The term refers particularly to the system used by people who are deaf or have severe hearing loss, which has its own syntax and methods of conveying nuances of feeling and emotion and is now accepted by most linguists as exhibiting the full set of defining characteristics of human oral aural language
Sign Language
A nonparametric test of a hypothesis concerning the median of a distribution
- It is commonly used to test the hypothesis that the median difference in matched pairs is zero
Sign Test
One of the gestalt principles of organization
- It states that people tend to organize objects with similar qualities into a perceptual group and interpret them as a whole
Similarity
A neuron in the striate cortex that has a receptive field consisting of an elongated center region and two elongated flanking regions
- The response of this to stimulation in the center of the receptive field is the opposite of its response to stimulation in the flanking zones
- This means that this responds best to an edge or a bar of a particular width and with a particular direction and location in the visual field
Simple Cell
In an experimental design involving multiple independent variables, the consistent total effect on a dependent variable of a particular level (quantity, magnitude, or category) of one independent variable at a particular level of another independent variable
Simple Effect
The most basic form of random sampling, in which the participants are selected individually by the use of a table of random digits or a random number generator
Simple Random Sampling
The total time that elapses between the presentation of a stimulus and the occurrence of a response in a task that requires a participant to make an elementary response (eg; pressing a key) whenever a stimulus (such as a light or tone) is presented
- The individual makes just a single response whenever the only possible stimulus is presented
Simple Reaction Time
- An experimental method used to investigate the behavior and psychological processes and functioning of individuals in social and other environments, often those to which investigators cannot easily gain access, by reproducing those environments in a realistic way
- The artificial creation of experiment like data through the use of a mathematical or computer model of behavior or data
- Resemblance or imitation, particularly the mimicking of symptoms of one disorder by another or the faking of an illness
Simulation
A Pavlovian conditioning technique in which the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus are presented at the same time
Simultaneous Conditioning
An experimental design involving only a single participant or other sampling unit
- The individual serves as his or her own control, and typically a number of observations are obtained at different times over the course of treatment
Single Case Design
The ascription of one’s own or another’s behavior, an event, or an outcome to causes outside the person concerned, such as luck, pressure from other people, or external circumstances
Situational Attribution
The view that an organism’s interaction with the environment and situational factors, rather than personal characteristics and other internal factors, are the primary determinants of behavior
Situationism
A test that places an individual in a natural setting, or in an experimental setting that approximates a natural one, to assess either the individual’s ability to solve a problem that requires adaptive behavior under stressful conditions or the individual’s reactions to what is believed to be a stressful experience
Situation Test
The ability to perceive an object as being the same size despite the fact that the size of its retinal image changes depending on its distance from the observer
- It is a type of perceptual constancy
Size Constancy
An illusion that an object is bigger or smaller than is actually the case caused by a false perception of its distance from the viewer
- For example, in the so called moon illusion the moon appears to be larger on the horizon, where depth cues make it appear to be farther away, than at its zenith, where there are no depth cues
Size Distance Paradox
A muscle that provides the force to move a part of the skeleton, typically under voluntary control of the central nervous system
- These are attached to the bones by tendons and usually span a joint, so that one end of the muscle is attached via a tendon to one bone and the other end is attached to another bone
- This is composed of numerous slender, tapering muscle fibers, within which are longitudinal contractile fibrils (myofibrils), organized into arrays (sarcomeres) that give a striped appearance when viewed microscopically
Skeletal Muscle
A measure of the degree or extent to which a batch of scores lack symmetry in their distribution around their measure of central tendency
- Positive skew occurs when the mean is greater than the median; that is, when there are more right tail (higher values) in the distribution
- Negative skew occurs when the median is greater than the mean; that is, when there are more left tail (lower values) in the distribution
Skewness
An ability or proficiency acquired through training and practice
- For example, motor skills are characterized by the ability to perform a complex movement or sequence of behaviors quickly, smoothly, and precisely, whereas social skills enable a person to interact competently and appropriately in a given social context
Skill
The external covering of the body, consisting of an outer layer (epidermis) and a deeper layer (dermis) resting on a layer of fatty subcutaneous tissue
- This prevents injury to underlying tissues, prevents the entry of foreign substances and pathogens, reduces water loss from the body, and forms part of the body’s temperature regulation mechanism through the evaporation of sweat secreted from sweat glands
- Various types of sensory nerve ending provide touch and pressure sensitivity, as well as sensations of pain and temperature
Skin
The degree of resistance of the skin to the passage of a small electric current between two electrodes, changes in which are typically used to measure a person’s level of arousal or energy mobilization
Skin Conductance
A state of the brain characterized by partial or total suspension of consciousness, muscular relaxation and inactivity, reduced metabolism, and relative insensitivity to stimulation
- Other mental and physical characteristics that distinguish this from wakefulness include amnesia for events occurring during the loss of consciousness and uniquely related electroencephologram and brain imaging patterns
- These characteristics also help distinguish normal sleep from a loss of consciousness due to injury, disease, or drugs
Sleep
A state of the brain characterized by partial or total suspension of consciousness, muscular relaxation and inactivity, reduced metabolism, and relative insensitivity to stimulation
- Other mental and physical characteristics that distinguish this from wakefulness include amnesia for events occurring during the loss of consciousness and uniquely related electroencephologram and brain imaging patterns
- These characteristics also help distinguish normal sleep from a loss of consciousness due to injury, disease, or drugs
Sleep
The temporary cessation of breathing while asleep, which occurs when the upper airway briefly becomes blocked (obstructive) or when the respiratory centers in the brain fail to stimulate respiration (central)
Sleep Apnea
A recurring pattern of sleep stages in which a period of slow wave sleep is followed by a period of REM sleep
- In humans, this lasts approximately 90 minutes
Sleep Cycle
Deliberate prevention of sleep, particularly for experimental purposes
- Studies show that the loss of one night’s sleep has a substantial effect on physical or mental functioning; participants score significantly lower on tests of judgement and simple reaction time and show impairments in daytime alertness and memory
- Sleep loss also may be detrimental to the immune and endocrine systems
Sleep Deprivation
The finding that the impact of a persuasive message increases over time
Sleeper Effect
Brief inability to move or speak just before falling asleep or on awakening, often accompanied by terrifying hallucinations
Sleep Paralysis
Characteristic spindle shaped patterns recorded on an electroencephalogram during stage 2 sleep
- They are short bursts of waves with a frequency of about 15 Hz that progressively increase then decrease in amplitude and they indicate a state of light sleep
- These are often accompanied by K complexes
Sleep Spindles
The four cycle progression in electrical activity of the brain during a normal night’s sleep, as recorded on an electroencephalogram
- The regular pattern of alpha waves characteristic of the relaxed state of the individual just before sleep becomes intermittent and attenuated in stage 1 sleep, which is marked by drowsiness with rolling eyeball movements
- This progresses to stage 2 sleep (light sleep), which is characterized by sleep spindles and K complexes
- In stage 3 and stage 4 sleep (deep sleep), delta waves predominate
- These stages comprise NREM sleep and are interspersed with periods of dreaming associated with REM sleep
Sleep Stages
A parasomnia characterized by repeated episodes of abrupt awakening from NREM sleep accompanied by disorientation and extreme panic
- More intense than nightmares and occurring during the first few hours of sleep, these episodes involve screaming and symptoms of autonomic arousal, such as profuse perspiration, rapid breathing, and a rapid heart rate
Sleep Terror Disorder
A parasomnia characterized by persistent incidents of complex motor activity during slow wave NREM sleep
- These episodes typically occur during the first hours of sleep and involve getting out of bed and walking or performing more complicated tasks
- While in this state, the individual stares blankly, is essentially unresponsive, and can be awakened only with great difficulty; he or she does not remember the episode upon waking
Sleepwalking Disorder
A minor error in speech, such as a spoonerism
- Psychoanalysts have long been interested in the significance of such slips, referring to them as Freudian slips and believing them to reveal unconscious associations, motivations, or wishes
Slip of the Tongue
In mathematics and statistics, the change in vertical distance on a graph divided by the horizontal distance
- It is represented by the slant of a line
Slope
Deep sleep that is characterized by delta waves on the electroencephalogram, corresponding to stages 3 and 4 of sleep
Slow Wave Sleep
A collection of techniques used to reduce the irregularities in a batch of data or in a plot (curve) of that data, particularly in time series analyses
Smoothing
Any muscle that is not striated and is under the control of the autonomic nervous system (ie; it is not under voluntary control)
- These are able to remain in a contracted state for long periods of time or maintain a pattern of rhythmic contractions indefinitely without fatigue
- This is found, for example, in the digestive organs and blood vessels
Smooth Muscle
A slow, steady eye movement that is responsive to feedback provided by brain regions involved in processing visual information, thus enabling continuous fixation on an object as it moves
Smooth Pursuit Movement
The tendency to seek out companionship, engage in interpersonal relations, and participate in social activities
Sociability
- Relating to human society
- Relating to the interactions of individuals, particularly as members of a group or a community
- In this sense, the term is not restricted to people but rather applies to all animals
Social
A numerical scale unit expressing how mature a person is in terms of his or her interpersonal skills and ability to fulfill the norms and expectations associated with particular social roles, as compared to others of the same chronological age
- This is similar to mental age and is derived from ratings gathered from the individual or, in the case of young children, from parents or caregivers using instruments such as the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales
Social Age
Fear of social situations (eg; making conversation, meeting strangers) in which embarrassment may occur or there is a risk of being negatively evaluated by others
- When the anxiety causes an individual significant distress or impairment in functioning, a diagnosis of social phobia may be warranted
Social Anxiety
A major group or division of society having a common level of power and prestige on the basis of a common socioeconomic status
- Often the members of a particular one share values and have similar religious and social patterns
- A popularly used classification divides individuals into an upper class, middle class, and working class
Social Class
In a given culture, the set of norms governing the ages at which particular life events, such as beginning school, leaving home, getting married, having children, and retiring, are expected to occur
Social Clock
The ways in which people perceive, think about, interpret, categorize, and judge their own social behaviors and those of others
- The study of this involves aspects of both cognitive psychology and social psychology
- Major areas of interest include attribution theory, person perception, social influence, and the cognitive processes involved in moral judgements
Social Cognition
A theoretical framework in which the functioning of personality is explained in terms of cognitive contents and processes acquired through interaction with the sociocultural environment
Social Cognitive Theory
The proposition that people evaluate their abilities and attitudes in relation to those of others (ie; through a process of comparison) when objective standards for the assessment of these abilities and attitudes are lacking
- Some also hold that those chosen as the comparison group are generally those whose abilities or attitudes are relatively similar to the person’s own abilities or views
Social Comparison Theory
Effectiveness or skill in interpersonal relations and social situations, increasingly considered an important component of mental health
- This involves the ability to evaluate social situations and determine what is expected or required; to recognize the feelings and intentions of others; and to select social behaviors that are most appropriate for that given context
- It is important to note, however, that what is required and appropriate for effective social functioning is likely to vary across settings
Social Competence
The school of thought that recognizes knowledge as embedded in social context and sees human thoughts, feelings, language, and behavior as the result of interchanges with the external world
- This argues that there is no separation between subjectivity and objectivity and that the dichotomy between the person and the situation is false: the person is intimately and intricately bound within social, cultural, and historical forces and cannot be understood fully without consideration of these social forces
- According to this, not only knowledge but reality itself is created in an interactive process and thus people are solely what their society shapes them to be
Social Constructivism
A strategy or rule used in a group to select a single alternative from among the various alternatives proposed and discussed during the group’s deliberations
- These schemes or rules are sometimes explicitly acknowledged by the group, as when a formal tally of those favoring the alternative is taken and the proposal is accepted only when a certain proportion of those present favor it, but are sometimes implicit and informal, as when a group accepts the alternative that its most powerful members seem to favor
Social Decision Scheme
- Limited access to society’s resources due to poverty, discrimination, or other disadvantage
- Lack of adequate opportunity for social experience
Social Deprivation
The extent to which someone or something is admired or considered valuable within a social group, particularly when this prompts individuals to present themselves in ways that are likely to be seen as positive by the majority of other people
Social Desirability
The tendency of a respondent or participant to five answers that elicit a favorable evaluation rather than answers that genuinely represent their views
- This often reduces the validity of interviews, questionnaires, and other self reports
Social Desirability Response Set
The theory or doctrine that individual behaviors are determined by societal events and other interpersonal experiences
Social Determinism
The gradual acquisition of certain skills (eg; language, interpersonal skills), attitudes, relationships, and behavior that enable the individual to interact with others and to function as a member of society
Social Development
An interpersonal situation that tempts individuals to seek personal, selfish gain by putting at risk the interests of the larger collective to which they belong
- Such mixed motive situations have reward structures that favor individuals who act selfishly rather than in ways that benefit the larger social collective; however, if a substantial number of individuals seek maximum personal gain, their outcomes will be lower than if they had sought collective outcomes
Social Dilemma
The degree to which, psychologically speaking, a person or group wants to remain separate from members of different social groups
- This reflects the extent to which individuals or groups accept others of a different ethnic, racial, national, or other social background
Social Distance
A measure of intergroup attitudes that asks respondents to indicate their willingness to accept members of other ethnic, national, or social groups in situations that range from relatively distant (“ would allow to live in my country”) to relatively close (“would admit to close kinship by marriage”)
Social Distance Scale
A theory envisioning social interactions as an exchange in which the participants seek to maximize their benefits within the limits of what is regarded as fair or just
- Intrinsic to this hypothesis is the reciprocity norm: people are expected to reciprocate for the benefits they have received
- This is similar to equity theory, which also maintains that people seek fairness in social relationships
Social Exchange Theory
The improvement in an individuals performance of a task that often occurs when others are present
- This effect tends to occur with tasks that are uncomplicated or have been previously mastered through practice
- There is some disagreement as to whether the improvement is due to a heightened state of arousal, a greater self awareness, or a reduced attention to unimportant and distracting peripheral stimuli
Social Facilitation
The personal qualities that one claims and displays to others so consistently that they are considered to be part of one’s essential, stable self
- This public persona may be an accurate indicator of the private, personal self, but it may also be a deliberately contrived image
Social Identity
A conceptual perspective on group processes and intergroup relations that assumes that groups influence their members’ self concepts and self esteem, particularly when individuals categorize themselves as group members and identify strongly with the group
- According to this theory, people tend to favor their ingroup over an outgroup because the former is part of their self identity
Social Identity Theory
A theory of social influence postulating that the amount of influence exerted by a source on a target depends on (a) the strength of the source compared to that of the target (eg; the social status of the source versus that of the target); (b) the immediacy of the source to the target (eg; the physical or psychological distance between them); and (c) the number of sources and targets (eg; several sources influencing a single target)
Social Impact Theory
Any change in an individual’s thoughts, feelings, or behaviors caused by other people
Social Influence
The restraint placed on an individual’s expression of her or his feelings, attitudes, motives, and so forth by the belief that others could learn of this behavior and disapprove of it
Social Inhibition
The ability to understand people and effectively relate to them
Social Intelligence
Any process that involves reciprocal stimulation or response between two or more individuals
- This includes the development of cooperation and competition, the influence of status and social roles, and the dynamics of group behavior, leadership, and conformity
- Persistent ones between specific individuals leads to the formation of social relationships
Social Interaction
The tendency to live as part of a group with clear organization of social interactions and the ability to cooperate with and adapt to the demands of the group
Sociality
The process by which individuals acquire social skills, beliefs, values, and behaviors necessary to function effectively in society or in a particular group
- It involves becoming aware of the social or group value system behavior pattern and what is considered normal or desirable for the social environment in which they will be members
Socialization
The social standard (norm) stating that people should be helped by others only if they deserve to be helped
Social Justice Norm
Learning that is facilitated through social interactions with other individuals
- Several forms of this have been identified, including social facilitation and imitation
Social Learning
The general view that learning is largely or wholly due to imitation, modeling, and other social interactions
- Behavior is assumed to be developed and regulated (a) by external stimulus events, such as the influence of other individuals; (b) by external reinforcement, such as praise, blame, and reward; and (c) by the effects of cognitive processes, such as thinking and judgement, on the individual’s behavior and on the environment that influences him or her
Social Learning Theory
The reduction of individual effort that occurs when people work in groups compared to when they work alone
Social Loafing
An emerging discipline that aims to integrate the social and biological approaches to human behavior that have often been seen as mutually exclusive
- Social neuroscientists use a range of methodologies to elucidate the reciprocal interactions of the brain’s biological mechanisms (especially the nervous, immune, and endocrine systems) with the social and cultural contexts in which human beings operate
Social Neuroscience
Any of the socially determined consensual standards that indicate (a) what behaviors are considered typical in a given context (descriptive norms) and (b) what behaviors are considered proper in the context (injunctive norms)
- Unlike statistical norms, these of both types include an evaluative quality such that those who do not comply and cannot provide an acceptable explanation for their violation are evaluated negatively
- These apply across groups and social settings, whereas group norms are specific to a particular group
Social Norm
A model stating that close relationships grow closer with increasingly intimate self disclosures
Social Penetration Theory
The processes by which a person uses the behavior of others to form opinions or make inferences about those individuals, particularly as regards their motives, attitudes, or values
Social Perception
An anxiety disorder that is characterized by extreme and persistent social anxiety or performance anxiety that causes significant distress or prevents participation in everyday activities
- The feared situation is most often avoided altogether or else it is endured with marked discomfort
Social Phobia
Play that involves interacting with others for fun or sport
- It is one of three basic types of play traditionally identified, the others being object play and locomotor play
Social Play
The exertion of influence on a person or group by another person or group
- This includes rational argument and persuasion (informational influence), calls for conformity (normative influence), and direct forms of influence, such as demands, threats, or personal attacks on the one hand and promises of rewards or social approval on the other (interpersonal influence)
Social Pressure
The study of how an individual’s thoughts, feelings, and actions are affected by the actual, imagined, or symbolically represented presence of other people, psychological type differs from sociological type in that the former tends to give greater emphasis to internal psychological processes, whereas the latter focuses on factors that affect social life, such as status, role, and class
Social Psychology
The consensus of attitudes, opinions, and beliefs held by members of a group or society
Social Reality
Evaluating one’s own modes of thinking, expression, or behavior by comparing them with those of other people so as to understand how to react in a particular situation and to adapt ones actions and reactions in some manner and to some degree that are perceived to be appropriate
- This ability has been demonstrated to emerge at a very early age: young infants use caregivers’ emotional expressions to guide their behavior in novel, ambiguous situations
Social Referencing
A system, model, or code for unambiguously naming and organizing values, ideas, and conduct, which enables communication and social exchange (ie; at the levels of language and behavior) among members of a particular group or community
Social Representation
The social standard or norm that, when possible, one should assist those in need
Social Responsibility Norm
The functional role played by an individual who holds a formal position in a social group, such as the role of squadron leader, teacher, or vice president of an organization
- Positions of this kind are termed role categories, and the attitudes and behavior associated with each category are termed role expectations
Social Role
A model contending that behavioral differences between men and women can be attributed to cultural standards and expectations about gender, rather than to biological factors
Social Role Theory
A cognitive structure of organized information, or representations, about social norms and collective patterns of behavior within society
- Whereas a self schema involves a person’s conception of herself or himself as an individual and in terms of a particular personal role (or roles) in life, these often underlie behavior of the person acting within group - particularly large group, or societal - contexts
Social Schema
Any of a number of disciplines concerned with the social interactions of individuals, studied from a scientific and research perspective
- These disciplines traditionally have included anthropology, economics, geography, history, linguistics, political science, psychiatry, psychology, and sociology, as well as associated areas of mathematics and biology
- The focus of analysis ranges from the individual to institutions and entire social systems
- The general goal is to understand social interactions and to propose solutions to social problems
Social Science
The aspects of the self that are important to or influenced by social relations
Social Self
A set of learned abilities that enable an individual to interact competently and appropriately in a given social context
- The most commonly identified ones include assertiveness, coping, communication and friendship making skills, interpersonal problem solving, and the ability to regulate one’s cognitions, feelings, and behavior
Social Skills
A form of individual or group therapy for those who need to overcome social inhibition or ineffectiveness
- It uses many techniques for teaching effective social interaction in specific situations (eg; job interviews, dating), including assertiveness training and behavioral and cognitive rehearsal
Social Skills Training
The relative prestige, authority, and privilege of an individual or group
- This can be determined by any number of factors - including occupation, level of education, ethnicity, religion, age, rank, achievements, wealth, reputation, authority, and ancestry - with different groups and societies stressing some qualities more than others when allocating status to members
Social Status
The existence or emergence of separate socioeconomic levels in a society
Social Stratification
The provision of assistance or comfort to others, typically in order to help them cope with a variety of biological, psychological, and social stressors
- Support may arise from any interpersonal relationship in an individual’s social network, involving family members, friends, neighbors, religious institutions, colleagues, caregivers, or support groups
- It may take the form of practical help with chores or money, informational assistance (eg; advice or guidance), and, at the most basic level, emotional support that allows the individual to feel valued, accepted, and understood
Social Support
A social dilemma over a public good in which individuals can maximize their resources by seeking personal goals rather than collective goals, but if too many individuals act selfishly, all members of the collective will experience substantial long term losses
- The “tragedy of the commons” is an example: a grazing area will be destroyed if too many of the farmers who share it increase the size of their herds
Social Trap
A profession devoted to helping individuals, families, and other groups deal with personal and practical problems within the larger community context of which they are a part
- These workers address a variety of problems, including those related to mental or physical disorder, poverty, living arrangements, child care, occupational stress, and unemployment, especially through involvement in the provision of services through various government and nongovernment agencies and organizations
Social Work
- An enduring social group living in a particular place whose members are mutually interdependent and share political and other institutions, laws and mores, and a common culture
- Any well established group of individuals (human or animal) that typically obtains new members at least in part through sexual reproduction and has relatively self sufficient systems of action
Society
The systematic study of the biological basis for social behavior, particularly in the context of the Darwinian principle of natural selection
Sociobiology
- The tendency to put the needs, concerns, and perspective of the social unit or group before one’s individual, egocentric concerns
- The tendency to judge one’s own group as superior to other groups across a variety of domains
- Whereas ethnocentrism refers to the selective favoring of one’s ethnic, religious, racial, or national groups, this usually means the favoring of smaller groups characterized by face to face interaction among members
Sociocentrism
Any viewpoint or approach to health, mental health, history, politics, economics, or any other area of human experience that emphasizes the environmental factors of society, culture, and social interaction
- In developmental psychology, for example, the term refers to the view that cognitive development is guided by adults interacting with children, with the cultural context determining to a large extent how, where, and when these interactions take place
Sociocultural Perspective
The position of an individual or group on the socioeconomic scale, which is determined by a combination or interaction of social and economic factors, such as income, amount and kind of education, type and prestige of occupation, place of residence, and (in some societies or parts of society) ethnic origin or religious background
Socioeconomic Status (SES)
Resulting from social factors
- For example, this type of hypothesis of schizophrenia posits that social conditions, such as living in impoverished circumstances, are major contributors to and causal agents of the disorder
Sociogenic
The study of the relationship between language and society and of the social circumstances of language usage, especially as related to such characteristics as gender, social class, and ethnicity
Sociolinguistics
The scientific study of the origin, development, organization, forms, and functioning of human society, including the analysis of the relationships between individuals and groups, institutions, and society itself
Sociology
A field of research in which various techniques are used to analyze the patterns of intermember relations within groups and to summarize these findings in mathematical and graphic form
- In most cases the group members’ responses to questions about their fellow members are displayed in a sociogram, which places those individuals who are most frequently chosen in the center of the diagram and others about the periphery
Sociometry
A former name for antisocial personality disorder
Sociopathy
A former name for antisocial personality disorder
Sociopathy
A membrane protein that uses energy to actively transport sodium ions out of a cell against their concentration gradient
- The main one responsible for maintaining the resting potential of animal cells, and hence the excitability of neurons and muscle cells, is called an Na+/K+ ATPase
- In each cycle, this moves three sodium ions out of the cell, across the plasma membrane, in exchange for two potassium ions entering the cell, using energy derived from ATP
Sodium Pump
The position that all events, including human actions and choices, have causes, but that free will and responsibility are compatible with such determinism
Soft Determinism
The philosophical position that one can be sure of the existence of nothing outside the self, as other people and things may be mere figments of one’s own consciousness
- The question posed by this has been put in various ways, but all arise from the fact that one’s experience of one’s own consciousness and identity is direct and unique, such that one is cut off from the same kind of experience of other minds and the things of the world
Solipsism
A collection of neural cell bodies in the medulla oblongata of the brainstem that relays information from the intermediate nerve (the sensory component of the facial nerve), glossopharyngeal nerve, and vagus nerve
- Gustatory neurons project from this to control reflexes of acceptance or rejection, to anticipate digestive processes, and to activate higher levels of the taste system
Solitary Nucleus
- Describing, relating to, or arising in the body as distinguished from the mind
- For example, this type of disorder is one involving a demonstrable abnormality in the structure or biochemistry of body tissues or organs - Describing, relating to, or arising in cells of the body other than the sex cells or their precursors (ie; germ line cells)
- Hence, this type of mutation cannot be transmitted to the offspring of the affected individual
Somatic
The false perception of a physical occurrence within the body, such as feeling electric currents
Somatic Hallucination
The part of the nervous system comprising the sensory and motor neurons that innervate the sense organs and the skeletal muscles, as opposed to the autonomic nervous system
Somatic Nervous System
The treatment of mental disorders by physical methods that directly influence the body, such as the administration of drugs (pharmocotherapy) or the application of a controlled, low dose electric current (electroconvulsive therapy)
Somatic Therapy
The expression of psychological disturbance in physical (bodily) symptoms
Somatization
A somatoform disorder involving a history of multiple physical symptoms of several years’ duration, for which medical attention has been sought but which are apparently not due to any physical disorder or injury
- The complaints often involve abdominal and other pain, nausea, diarrhea, sexual indifference and other difficulties, shortness of breath, palpitations, and apparent neurological symptoms (such as blurred vision)
Somatization Disorder
Any of a group of disorders marked by physical symptoms suggesting a specific medical condition for which there is no demonstrable organic evidence and for which there is positive evidence or a strong probability that they are linked to psychological factors
- The symptoms must cause marked distress or significantly impair normal social or occupational functioning
- These include body dysmorphic disorder, conversion disorder, hypochondriasis, pain disorder, and somatization disorder
Somatoform Disorder
Any of the senses related to touch and position, including kinesthesis, the visceral sense, and the cutaneous senses
Somatosense
Either of two main areas of the cerebral cortex that respond to stimulation associated with touch, vibration, pain, temperature, and position
- The primary one is located in the postcentral gyrus of the anterior parietal lobe, and the secondary one is on the lateral surface of the parietal lobe just dorsal to the lateral sulcus
Somatosensory Area
The parts of the nervous system that serve perception of touch, vibration, pain, temperature, and position
- Nerve fibers from receptors for these senses enter the dorsal roots of the spinal cord and ascend to the thalamus, from which they are relayed (directly or indirectly) to the somatosensory areas of the parietal cortex
Somatosensory System
A hormone that is secreted by the hypothalamus and inhibits the release of the growth hormone (somatotropin) by the anterior pituitary gland
- It is also secreted by cells in the islets of langerhans in the pancreas, where it inhibits the secretion of insulin and glucagon
Somatostatin
The topographic distribution of areas of the motor cortex relating to specific activities of skeletal muscles, as mapped by electrically stimulating a point in the cortex and observing associated movement of a skeletal muscle in the face, the trunk, or a limb
Somatotopic Organization
The body build or physique of a person, particularly as it relates to his or her temperament or behavioral characteristics
- Numerous categories of these have been proposed by various investigators since ancient times
- The classification of individuals in this way is called somatotypology
Somatotype
Stimulus - organism - response psychology: an extension of the S-R psychology of behaviorists incorporating the notion that biological or psychological factors within the organism help determine what stimuli the organism is sensitive to and which responses may occur
S-O-R Psychology
Variations in pressure that occur over time in an elastic medium, such as air or water
- This does not necessarily elicit an auditory sensation - infrasound and ultrasound are respectively below and above the audible range of humans - but in psychology this usually denotes a stimulus capable of being heard by an organism
Sound
Impaired memory for how, when, or where information was learned despite good memory for the information itself
- This is often linked to frontal lobe pathology
Source Amnesia
Remembering the origin of a memory or of knowledge, that is, memory of where or how one came to know what one now remembers
- More recently, this construct has been expanded to encompass any aspects of context associated with an event, including spatial temporal, perceptual, or affective attributes
- Although the prefrontal cortex is known to be involved in this, its exact contribution remains uncertain
- Additionally, evidence suggests that processes used by young and older adults may differ
Source Memory
Determining the origins of one’s memories, knowledge, or beliefs, for example, whether an event was personally experienced, witnessed on television, or overheard
Source Monitoring
A sudden, involuntary muscle contraction
- It may be continuous or sustained (tonic) or it may alternate between contraction and relaxation (clonic)
- This may be restricted to a particular body part; for example, a vasospasm involves a blood vessel, and a bronchial spasm involves the branch
Spasm
- Relating to spasm
- Relating to increased muscle tension
Spastic
A state of increased tension of resting muscles resulting in resistance to passive stretching
- It is caused by damage to upper motor neurons and is marked by muscular stiffness or inflexibility
Spasticity
The manner in which an individual distributes attention over the visual scene
- This is usually directed at the part of the scene on which a person fixates
Spatial Attention
The capacity to remember the position and location of objects or places, which may include orientation, direction, and distance
- This is essential for route learning and navigation
Spatial Memory
A disorder in which individuals are unaware of a portion of their surrounding physical, personal, or extrapersonal space, usually on the left side
- For example, if approached on the left side, an individual with this may not notice the approaching person but would respond normally when approached on the right side
Spatial Neglect
A neural mechanism in which an impulse is propagated by two or more post synaptic potentials occurring simultaneously at different synapses on the same neuron, when the discharge of a single synapse would not be sufficient to activate the neuron
Spatial Summation
The ability to conceptualize the three dimensional relationships of objects in space and to mentally manipulate them as a succession of transformations over a period of time
- This is a cognitive ability that plays an important role in such fields as architecture, engineering, and mathematics, among others, and in such basic tasks as everyday movement of the body through space
Spatial Temporal Reasoning
The requirements of individuals with physical, mental, or emotional disabilities or financial, community related, or resource disadvantages
- These may include special education, training, or therapy
Special Needs
Discriminatory, prejudicial, or exploitative practices against nonhuman animals, often on the basis of an assumption of human superiority
Speciesism
Spontaneously developed behavior that is common to nearly all members of a particular species and expressed in essentially the same way
- Human language is a prominent example
Species Specific Behavior
(Symbol: S)
A specialized ability that is postulated to come into play in particular kinds of cognitive tasks
- This, such as mathematical ability, are contrasted with the general factor (g), which underlies every cognitive performance
Specific Factor
- The quality of being unique, of a particular kind, or limited to a single phenomenon
- For example, a stimulus that elicits a particular response or a symptom localized in a particular organ (eg; the stomach) is said to have this - The probability that a test yields a negative diagnosis given that the individual does not have the condition for which he or she is being tested
Specificity
A substantial deficit in scholastic or academic skills that does not pervade all areas of learning but rather is limited to a particular aspect, for example, reading or arithmetic difficulty
Specific Learning Disability
An anxiety disorder, formerly called simple phobia, characterized by a marked and persistent fear of a specific object, activity, or situation (eg; dogs, blood, flying, heights)
- The fear is excessive or unreasonable and is invariably triggered by the presence or anticipation of the feared object or situation; consequently, this is either avoided or endured with marked anxiety or distress
Specific Phobia
A quasi three dimensional representation of sound produced by analyzing a sound source (typically human speech) in terms of its variations in frequency and intensity over time
Spectrogram
A distribution of electromagnetic energy displayed by decreasing wavelength
- In the case of the visible one, it is the series of visible colors (with wavelengths in the range 400 - 700 nm) produced when white light is refracted through a prism
Spectrum
The product of oral motor movement resulting in articulation of language expression: the utterance of sounds and words
Speech
An instance of the use of speech considered as an action, especially with regard to the speaker’s intentions and the effect on a listener
- A single utterance usually involves several simultaneous ones
- The study of these is part of the general field of pragmatics
Speech Act
Any disorder that affects verbal or written communication
- A speech disorder is one that affects the production of speech, potentially including such problems as poor audibility or intelligibility; unpleasant tonal quality; unusual, distorted, or abnormally effortful sound production; lack of conventional rhythm and stress; and inappropriateness in terms of age or physical or mental development
- A language disorder is one that affects the expression or reception (comprehension) of ideas and feelings, potentially including such problems as reduced vocabulary, omissions of articles and modifiers, understanding of nouns but not verbs, difficulties following oral instructions, and syntactical errors
- While these are two distinct entities, they often occur together and thus generally are referred to together
Speech and Language Disorder
The application of remedies, treatment, and counseling for the improvement of verbal or written communication
Speech and Language Therapy
Any of the areas of the cerebral cortex that are associated with verbal (oral, rather than written) communication
- These are located in the left hemisphere in most individuals; they include Broca’s area in the third convolution of the frontal lobe and Wernicke’s area in the temporal lobe
Speech Area
The process in which a listener decodes, combines, and converts into a meaningful sequence and phonological representation an incoming stream of otherwise meaningless sound
Speech Perception
A type of test intended to calculate the number of problems or tasks the participant can solve or perform in a predesignated block of time
- The participant is often, but not always, made aware of the time limit
Speed Test
The process of production of spermatozoa in the seminiferous tubules of the testis
- Male germ cells (spermatogenia) lining the seminiferous tubules mature into primary spermatocytes, which undergo meiosis
- In the first meiotic division, each primary spermatocyte gives rise to two haploid secondary spermatocytes, each of which then undergoes a further division to form two spermatids
- The latter, attached to protective, nourishing Sertoli cells, mature into spermatozoa
Spermatogenesis
A single male gamete that develops from a secondary spermatocyte following its development from spermatogonia of the seminiferous tubules
- This fuses with a female gamete in the process of fertilization
Spermatozoon
An assumption encountered in the analysis of data obtained when individuals are measured on two or more occasions that requires the correlation among the time points to be constant for all time points
Sphericity
The backbone, consisting of a series of bones (vertebrae) connected by disks of cartilage (intervertebral disks) and held together by muscles and tendons
- It extends from the cranium to the coccyx, encloses the spinal cord, and forms the main axis of the body
Spinal Column
The part of the central nervous system that extends from the lower end of the medulla oblongata, at the base of the brain, through a canal in the center of the spine as far as the lumbar region
- In transverse section, the cord consists of an H shaped core of gray matter surrounded by white matter consisting of tracts of long ascending and descending nerve fibers on either side of the cord that are linked by a bundle of myelinated fibers called the white commissure
- This is enveloped by the meninges and is the origin of the 31 pairs of spinal nerves
Spinal Cord
Any of the 31 pairs of nerves that originate in the gray matter of the spiral cord and emerge through openings between the vertebrae of the spine to extend into the body’s dermatomes (skin areas) and skeletal muscles
- These comprise 8 cervical nerves, 12 thoracic nerves, 5 sacral nerves, and 1 coccygeal nerve
- Each attaches to the spinal cord via two short branches, a dorsal root and a ventral root
Spinal Nerve
The junction of a spinal nerve and the spinal cord
- Near the cord, each spinal nerve divides into a dorsal root, carrying sensory fibers, and a ventral root, carrying motor fibers, as stated by the Bell Magendie law
Spinal Root
The mass of cell bodies on the inner wall of the cochlea, near the organ of Corti, whose axons form the auditory nerve
Spiral Ganglion
Any of certain nerves that serve the abdominal viscera
- They originate in the ganglia of the sympathetic chain
Splanchnic Nerve
A brain in which the cerebral hemispheres have been separated by severence of the corpus callosum
- Surgical transection of the corpus callosum is used to create these animals for experimental purposes and is also occasionally performed on humans to alleviate some forms of severe epilepsy
Split Brain
A measure of the ability of a test to measure an attribute consistently, obtained by correlating scores on one half of the test with scores on the other half
Split Half Reliability
A lay term for an individual with dissociative identity disorder
- It is sometimes confused with schizophrenia, which means literally “splitting of the mind” but does not involve the formation of a second personality
Split Personality
A test in which brief auditory messages in the form of two different lists of digits or words are presented rapidly and simultaneously, one list to each ear
- Participants are required to report as many digits or words as possible in any order
- Typically, participants report first the stimuli presented to one ear, then those presented to the other
Split Span Test
The reappearance of a conditioned response, after either operant or Pavlovian conditioning, after it has been experimentally extinguished
Spontaneous Recovery
A reduction or disappearance of symptoms without any therapeutic intervention, which may be temporary or permanent
- It most commonly refers to medical, rather than psychological, conditions
Spontaneous Remission
A slip of the tongue in which two sound elements (usually initial consonants) are unintentionally transposed, resulting in an utterance with a different and often amusing sense, for example, sons of toil for tons of soil [W.A. Spooner (1844 - 1930), British academic noted for slips of this kind]
Spoonerism
The application and development of psychological theory for the understanding and modification or enhancement of human behavior in the sport and physical exercise environment
- This discipline evolved from an exclusive focus or sport performance and historically has been called sport psychology
- However, health and wellbeing through regular participation in vigorous physical activity programs have become of increasing interest to consumers, researchers, and practitioners to such an extent that the field is progressively becoming two separate disciplines as exercise psychology merges with health psychology
Sport and Exercise Psychology
- In neuroscience, a hypothetical process in which the activation of one neuron is presumed to spread to connected neurons, making it more likely that they will fire
- In cognitive psychology, an analogous model for the association of ideas, memories, and the like, based on the notion that activation of one item stored in memory travels through associated links to activate another item
- This is a feature of some connectionist models of memory
Spreading Activation
One of a variety of study methods developed on the basis of research in cognitive psychology
- The formula represents a method for enhanced learning of reading material
- It consists of five steps: survey, question, read, recite, and review
SQ3R
An approach to psychology that conceptualizes behavior in terms of stimulus and response
- The fundamental goal is therefore describing functional relationships between stimulus and response, that is, manipulating a stimulus and observing the response
- S-R theories are sometimes contrasted with cognitive theories of learning
S-R Psychology
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor: any of a class of antidepressants that act by blocking the reuptake of serotonin into serotonin containing presynaptic neurons in the central nervous system
- These have less adverse side effects then the tricyclic antidepressants and the monoamine oxidase inhibitors; common side effects include nausea, headache, anxiety, and tremor
- These include fluoxetine, paroxetine, sertraline, citalopram, and fluvoxamine
SSRI
The absence of variation, as applied, for example, to personality (few emotional or mood changes) or testing (invariance of measurements)
Stability
An image on the retina that does not move when the eye is moved
- This will fade rapidly since neurons in the visual system are sensitive to change rather than to maintained stimulation
- Even during visual fixation images are normally not truly stabilized, because very small eye movements (microsaccades) continually refresh the stimulation of the retina by moving the eyes relative to a target
Stabilized Image
A relatively discrete period of time in which functioning is qualitatively different from functioning at other periods
Stage
A hypothetical model depicting psychological states, moods, or coping strategies that occur during the dying process or during periods of bereavement, great loss, or trauma
- These begin with the denial stage, followed by the anger stage, bargaining stage, depression stage, and acceptance stage
- The stages do not necessarily occur for a set period of time; moreover, they can recur and overlap before some degree of psychological and emotional resolution occurs
Stages of Grief
Any hypothetical construct that attempts to describe phases, or steps, in a process that occurs over time
- Examples in psychology abound, including Sigmund Freud’s stages of psychosexual development and Jean Piaget’s stages of cognitive development
Stage Theory
A variation of the method of limits in which stimuli are presented in ascending and descending order
- When the observer’s response changes, the direction of the stimulus sequence is reversed
- This method is efficient because it does not present stimuli that are well above or below threshold
Staircase Method
A repeated pattern of following or observing a person in an obsessional, intrusive, or harassing manner
- Often associated with a failed relationship with the one pursued, this may involve direct threats, the intent to cause distress or bodily harm, and interpersonal violence
Stalking
Any positive idea about how things might be, such as an ideal, norm, value, expectation, or previous performance, that is used to measure and judge the way things are
- Evaluation of the self is often based on comparing the current reality (or perceptions of the current reality) against one or more standards
Standard
(Symbol: SD)
- A measure of the dispersion of a set of scores, indicating how narrowly or broadly they are distributed around the mean
- It is equal to the square root of the variance
Standard Deviation
A measure of the potential for error inherent to calculating a particular value using a subset of a population
- It is equal to the standard deviation of the distribution of values within the sample divided by the size of a sample
- For example, the standard error of the mean is equal to o/^n, where o is the standard deviation from the mean for the values within the sample and n is the sample size
Standard Error
A measure of the degree to which a regression line fits a set of data
- If Y’ is an estimated value from a regression line and y is the actual value, then this is ^[£(y - y’)2/n], where n is the number of points
Standard Error of Estimate
(Symbol: SEM)
In measurement theory, the error in estimating true scores from observed scores
Standard Error of Measurement
The process of establishing norms or uniform procedures for a test
Standardization
A test whose validity and reliability have been established by thorough empirical investigation and analysis and which has clearly defined norms
Standardized Test
A score obtained from an original score by subtracting the mean value of all scores in the batch and dividing by the standard deviation of the batch
- This conversion from raw scores to this allows comparisons to be made between measurements on different scales
- This is often given the symbol Z and is sometimes referred to as a Z score
Standard Score
A stimulus used as the basis of comparison for other stimuli in an experiment, for example, in comparing loud sounds to a sound of given intensity
Standard Stimulus
A standardized assessment of intelligence and cognitive abilities, particularly fluid reasoning, knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual spatial processing, and working memory
- This was so named because it was brought to the United States by U.S. psychologist Lewis M. Terman (1877 - 1956), a professor at Stanford University, in 1916, as a revision and extension of the original Binet Simon scale (the first modern intelligence test) developed in 1905 by French psychologist Alfred Binet (1857 - 1911) and French physician Théodore Simon (1873 - 1961) to assess the intellectual ability of French children
Stanford Binet Intelligence Scale (SB)
A highly controversial 1971 study of the psychological effects of becoming a prisoner or a prison guard, conducted by a research team under the direction of U.S. psychologist Philip G. Zimbardo (1933 - )
- The paid volunteer participants - both “prisoners” and “guards” - were 24 mostly while male and middle class undergraduate students
- Prisoners were “arrested” and “incarcerated” in a simulated jail in the basement of the building housing the psychology department at Stanford University
- A variety of methods and situations were used to depersonalize participants, diminish their sense of identity, and increase a sense of power on the one hand (guards) and powerlessness on the other (prisoners)
- The experiment was terminated after only 6 days of the originally scheduled 14, because of Zimbardo’s realization that it had far exceeded the extent of behavior that was predicted and had led to emotionally and psychologically damaging outcomes; several of the guards were seen to exhibit sadistic tendencies in their treatment of prisoners, and several of the prisoners showed physical manifestations of stress and psychological trauma
- Apart from ethical considerations, the study was criticized as methodologically flawed and invalid from multiple perspectives, including the small size of the sample, lack of ecological validity, and lack of sufficient controls
- Nonetheless, this is often cited as a demonstration of the way in which social contexts can influence, alter, shape, and transform human behavior
Stanford Prison Experiment
An unlearned, involuntary response to unexpected stimuli (loud noises, flashing lights, ect)
- This response includes behaviors that serve a protective function, such as closing the eyes, lowering the head, and hunching the shoulders
Startle Response
The condition or status of an entity or person at a particular time
State
Learning that occurs in a particular biological or psychological state and is better recalled when the individual is subsequently in the same state
- For example, an animal trained to run a maze while under the influence of a psychoactive drug (eg; pentobarbital) may not run it successfully without the drug
State Dependent Learning
A condition in which memory for a past event is improved when the person is in the same biological or psychological state as when the memory was initially formed
- Thus, alcohol may improve recall of events experienced when previously under the influence of alcohol
State Dependent Memory
Any function of the observations in a set of data
- These may be used to describe a batch of data, to estimate parameters in optimal ways, or to test hypotheses
Statistic
Examination of data through the use of probabilistic models in order to make inferences and draw conclusions
Statistical Analysis
The degree to which a result cannot reasonably be attributed to the operation of chance or random factors alone
Statistical Significance
A specific mathematical technique used to test the correctness of an empirical hypothesis
Statistical Test
The branch of mathematics that uses data descriptively or inferentially to find or support answers for scientific and other quantifiable questions
Statistics
- The standing or position of an individual or group relative to others, for example, an individual’s social status
- A persistent condition, as in status epilepticus, a continuous series of seizures
Status
A condition of stability or equilibrium
- For example, in behavioral studies it is a state in which behavior is practically the same over repeated observations in a particular context
- In pharmacology, it refers to a state in the body in which the amount of a drug administered is equal to that excreted
Steady State
A graphical method for the display of data that resembles a histogram but carries more detailed information about the values of the data points
Stem and Leaf Plot
A cell that is itself undifferentiated but can divide to produce one or more types of specialized tissue cells (eg; blood cells, nerve cells)
- These are found in embryos (embryonic stem cells) but also occur in adults as tissue stem cells
- Adult and embryonic stem cell research have the potential for changing treatment of disease through use of the cells to repair specific tissues; however, the ethics of the latter are the subject of intense debate
Stem Cell
The abnormal narrowing of a body conduit or passage
- For example, carotid stenosis is narrowing of a carotid artery (eg; by atherosclerosis) in the neck, which limits blood flow to the brain
Stenosis
A family unit formed by the union of parents one or both of whom brings a child or children from a previous union (or unions) into the new household
Stepfamily
A group of regression techniques that enter predictor (independent) variables into (or delete them from) the regression equation one variable (or block of variables) at a time according to some predefined criterion
Stepwise Regression
A picture perceived to have depth because it is produced by the binocular summation of two separate images of the same scene, each image slightly offset from the other in the horizontal plane
- Although a stereoscope is commonly used to view the images, some observers can fuse the two images by simply crossing or uncrossing their eyes
Stereogram
Depth perception provided by means of the binocular disparity of the images in the two eyes
Stereopsis
Determination of the exact location of a specific structure within the brain by means of three dimensional measurements
- This is used for positioning microelectrodes, cannulas (small tubes), or other devices in the brain for diagnostic, experimental, or therapeutic purposes and for locating an area of the brain prior to surgery
Stereotaxy
A set of cognitive generalizations (eg; beliefs, expectations) about the qualities and characteristics of the members of a particular group or social category
- These simplify and expedite perceptions and judgements, but they are often exaggerated, negative rather than positive, and resistant to revision even when perceivers encounter individuals with qualities that are not congruent with the stereotype
Stereotype
An individual’s expectation that negative stereotypes about his or her member group will adversely influence others’ judgements of his or her performance
- This expectation may in turn undermine the individual’s actual ability to perform well
Stereotype Threat
Persistent repetition of the same words, movements, or other behavior, particularly as a symptom of disorder (eg; autism, obsessive compulsive disorder, schizophrenia)
Stereotypy
Any of a class of hormones whose molecular structure is based on the steroid nucleus of four interconnected rings of carbon atoms
- Examples include the sex hormones and corticosteroids
Steroid Hormone
A psychophysical relationship stating that the psychological magnitude of a sensation is proportional to a power of the stimulus producing it
- This can be expressed as ¥ = ks^n, where ¥ is the sensation, K is a constant of proportionality, S is the stimulus magnitude, and n is the function of the particular stimulus [Stanley Smith Stevens (1906 - 1973), U.S. psychophysicist]
Stevens Law
The negative social attitude attached to a characteristic of an individual that may be regarded as a mental, physical, or social deficiency
- This implies social disapproval and can lead unfairly to discrimination against and exclusion of the individual
Stigma
Any of various agents that excite functional activity in an organism or in a part of an organism
- These are usually classified according to the body system or function excited (eg; cardiac stimulants, respiratory stimulants)
- In psychology, the term usually refers to the central nervous system stimulants (or psychostimulants)
Stimulant
The act or process of increasing the level of activity of an organism, particularly that of evoking heightened activity in (eliciting a response from) a sensory receptor, neuron, or other bodily tissue
Stimulation
- Any agent, event, or situation - internal or external - that elicits a response from an organism
- Any change in physical energy that activates a sensory receptor
Stimulus
The extent to which behavior is influenced by different stimulus conditions
- It can refer to different responses occurring in the presence of different stimuli or to differences in the rate, temporal organization, or physical characteristics of a single response in the presence of different stimuli
Stimulus Control
The ability to distinguish among different stimuli (eg; to distinguish a circle from an ellipse) and to respond differently in the presence of such
Stimulus Discrimination
The spread of effects of conditioning (either operant or Pavlovian) to stimuli that differ in certain aspects from the stimulus present during original conditioning
- For example, a dog conditioned to bark when a particular bell sounds tends to bark to bells of any pitch
Stimulus Generalization
The time between the onset of one stimulus and the onset of the following stimulus
- The term is used mainly in experiments with masking
Stimulus Onset Asynchrony
The condition in which the environment presents too many stimuli to be comfortably processed, resulting in stress and behavior designed to restore equilibrium
Stimulus Overload
A procedure used in choice reaction tasks in which a signal instructing the participant to withhold the response is presented on some trials at varying intervals after presentation of the stimulus
- This is done to determine at what point in processing a response can no longer be inhibited
Stop Signal Task
The state of an item that is retained in memory, after encoding and before retrieval
Storage
- The recounting by a client of the events, concerns, and problems that led him or her to seek treatment
- Therapists can learn much about the motives and origins of conflicts by attending carefully to the stories that clients bring to the session - The use of symbolic talk and allegorical stories by the therapist to aid the client’s understanding of issues
Storytelling
Any chronic abnormal alignment of the eyes
- Because these eyes look in different directions, they give the brain conflicting messages, which may result in double vision or the suppression by the brain of one eye’s view altogether
- The most common form of this occurs horizontally: one or both eyes deviate inward (convergent type) or outward (divergent type)
Strabismus
The distress and apprehension experienced by young children when they are around individuals who are unfamiliar to them
- This is a normal part of cognitive development: babies differentiate caregivers from other people and display a strong preference for familiar faces
- This usually begins around 8 or 9 months of age and typically lasts into the 2nd year
Stranger Anxiety
An experimental technique used to assess quality of attachment in infants and young children (up to the age of 2)
- The procedure subjects the child to increasing amounts of stress induced by a strange setting, the entrance of an unfamiliar person, and two brief separations from the parent
- The reaction of the child to each of these situations is used to evaluate the security or insecurity of his or her attachment to the parent
Strange Situation
Arrangement into a layered configuration, as for example in social stratification
Stratification
A technique in which a population is divided into subdivisions (strata) and individuals or cases are selected for study from each strata
- The sample obtained thus includes a number of individuals representing each stratum (eg; young and old or men and women), the goal being to reproduce as accurately as possible their proportional representation in the population of interest
- Typically, random sampling is used to select the cases from each stratum, in which case the technique is referred to as stratified random sampling
Stratified Sampling
The concept of consciousness as a continuous, dynamic flow of ideas and images rather than a static series of discrete components
- It emphasizes the subjective quality of conscious experience as a nerve ending and never repeating stream
Stream of Consciousness
In statistics, the degree of relationship between two or more variables
- Common measures are omega squared and the correlation coefficient
Strength of Association
A state of physiological or psychological response to internal or external forces or events, involving changes affecting nearly every system of the body
- For example, it may be manifested by palpitations, sweating, dry mouth, shortness of breath, fidgeting, faster speech, augmentation of negative emotions (if already being experienced), and longer duration of fatigue
- Severe type is manifested by the general adaptation syndrome
- By causing these mind body changes, this contributes directly to psychological and physiological disorder and disease and affects mental and physical health, reducing the quality of life
Stress
A four phase training program for stress management often used in cognitive behavior therapy
- Phase 1 entails the identification of reactions to stress and their effects on functioning and psychological well being; phase 2 involves learning relaxation and self regulation techniques; phase 3 consists of learning coping self statements; phase 4 involves assisted progression through a series of increasingly stressful situations using imagery, video, role playing, and real life situations until the individual is eventually able to cope with the original stress inducing situation or event
Stress Inoculation Training
The use of specific techniques, strategies, or programs - such as relaxation training, anticipation of stress reactions, and breathing techniques - for dealing with stress inducing situations and the state of being stressed
Stress Management
Any event, force, or condition that results in physical or emotional stress
- These may be internal or external forces that require adjustment or coping strategies on the part of the affected individual
Stressor
The contraction of a muscle in response to stretching of that muscle
- These support the body against the pull of gravity
Stretch Reflex
The first region of the cerebral cortex that receives visual input from the thalamus, particularly from the lateral geniculate nucleus
- This is located in the occipital lobe and contains a dense band of myelinated fibers that appears as a white stripe (stripe of Gennari)
- Neurons in this project to visual areas in the prestriate cortex and to subcortical visual nuuclei
Striate Cortex (V1)
- The apparent motion of a series of separate stimuli occurring in close consecutive order, as in motion pictures
- The apparent lack of motion or reverse motion of a moving object, such as a rotating fan, produced by illuminating it with a series of intermittent light flashes
Stroboscopic Illusion
Disruption of blood flow to the brain, which deprives the tissue of oxygen and nutrients, causing tissue damage and loss of normal function and, potentially, tissue death
- This may result from massive bleeding into brain tissue (hemorrhagic); an embolism (obstructing material) or thrombus (blood clot) blocking an artery in the brain (embolic or thrombolic); or multiple small areas of brain tissue death from occlusion of small branches of the cerebral arteries (lacunar)
- This term is often used interchangeably with cerebrovascular accident
Stroke
A three part test in which (a) color names are read as fast as possible; (b) the colors of bars or other shapes are rapidly named; and, most importantly, (c) color hues are named quickly when used to print the names of other colors (such as the word green printed in the color red)
- The degree to which the participants are subject to interference by the printed words is a measure of their cognitive flexibility and selective attention [John Ridley Stroop (1897 - 1973), U.S. psychologist]
Stroop Color Word Interference Test
The finding that the time it takes a participant to name the color of ink in which a word is printed is longer for words that denote incongruent color names than for neutral words or for words that denote a congruent color
- For example, if the word blue is written in red ink (incongruent), participants take longer to say “red” than if the word glue is written in red ink (neutral) or if the word red is written in red ink (congruent)
Stroop Effect
A statistical modeling technique that includes latent variables as causal elements
- This is an advanced statistical method for testing causal models involving constructs that cannot be directly measured but are, rather, approximated through several measures presumed to assess part of the given construct
Structural Equation Modeling (SEM)
A type of family therapy that assesses the subsystems, boundaries, hierarchies, and coalitions within a family (its structure) and focuses upon direct interactions between the family members (enactment) as the primary method of inducing positive change
- This assumes the competence and uniqueness of families with problems, stressing that when appropriately induced to do so families will discover their own alternatives to their ineffective patterns of relating to one another and that this process of discovery cannot proceed in a specific predetermined form but instead can only be directed toward a fairly well defined area of functioning
- For example, this type of therapist working with a family whose daughter is anorexic would examine such family issues as the framework of authority, the rules that govern the assumption of roles, the various functions members perform, and the coalitions created by the bonding of certain family members, and then encourage the mother, daughter, and father to use this information to develop more productive patterns of functioning
Structural Family Therapy
- A movement considered to be the first school of psychology as a science, independent of philosophy
- Usually attributed to German psychologist and physiologist Willhelm Wundt (1832 - 1920), but probably more directly influenced by British born U.S. psychologist Edward Bradford Titchener (1867 - 1927), this defined psychology as the study of mental experience and sought to investigate the structure of such experience through a systematic program of experiments based on trained introspection - A movement in various disciplines that study human behavior and culture that took its impetus from the radically new approach to linguistic analysis pioneered by Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (1857 - 1913)
- He maintained that linguistic signs acquire meaning not through their relationships to external referents but through their structural relationships to other signs in the same system
- This model of language was extended to cover essentially all social and cultural phenomena, including human thought and action, in the work of French anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss (1908 - )
- These explanations play down individual autonomy and agency, positivistic science, and linear time causation in favor of explanations in terms of structural and systemic influences operating in the present to produce rule governed behavior, the true nature of which can be revealed as the underlying structures are revealed
Structuralism
An interview consisting of a predetermined set of questions or topics
- These are popular in marketing research, personnel selection, and other fields
Structured Interview
Any of various methods for measuring overt behaviors and interpersonal processes that require that each observed unit of action be classified into an objectively defined category
Structured Observation
- Any research investigation, but particularly a project, such as a survey or systematic observation, that is less rigorously controlled than a true experiment
- Any attempt to acquire and remember information
Study
A state of lethargy and impaired consciousness, in which an individual is unresponsive and immobile and experiences disorientation
Stupor
A disturbance in the normal fluency and time patterning of speech
- It is characterized by frequent repetition or prolongation of sounds, syllables, or words, with hesitations and pauses that disrupt speech, particularly in situations where communication is important or stressful
Stuttering
A typically stable characteristic mode or manner of expressing oneself or acting
- Various psychological researchers have examined particular areas of human activity to identify and classify modal differences, as for example in cognitive style and leadership style
Style
A typically stable characteristic mode or manner of expressing oneself or acting
- Various psychological researchers have examined particular areas of human activity to identify and classify modal differences, as for example in cognitive style and leadership style
Style
- Denoting mental processes that occur outside consciousness but can easily be brought into awareness
- in the conceptualization of Austrian psychiatrist Sigmund Freud (1856 - 1939), the concept of the mind beneath the level of consciousness, comprising the preconscious
Subconscious
Relating to structures or processes in the brain that are located or take place beneath the cerebral cortex
- For example, a subcortical center is any region of the brain at a level below the cerebral cortex that has a particular function or functions (eg; the thalamus, hypothalamus, and basal ganglia)
Subcortical
A group that maintains a characteristic set of customs, interests, or beliefs that serve to distinguish it from the larger culture in which the members live
Subculture
A structure in the brain that is responsive to angiotensin II and contributes to thirst and drinking behavior
- It is located below the fornix
Subfornical Organ
To perceive at a glance how many objects are presented, without counting [from Latin subito, “at once”]
Subitize
The individual human or nonhuman animal that takes part in an experiment or research study and whose responses or performance are reported or evaluated
- Participant is now often the preferred term for human subjects, because the word is depersonalizing and implies passivity and submissiveness on the part of the experimentee
Subject
- Taking place or existing only within the mind and thus intrinsically inaccessible to the experience or observation of others
- Based on or influenced by personal feelings, interpretations, or prejudices
Subjective
An edge or border perceived in an image as a result of the inference of the observer
- A common example is the Kanizsa triangle, which is induced by three black circles - each with a 60• wedge removed - placed as the apexes of a triangle
Subjective Contour
An assessment tool that is scored according to personal judgement or to standards that are less systematic than those used in objective tests, as in an essay examination
Subjective Test
A judgement that people make about the overall quality of their lives by summing emotional ups and downs to determine how well their actual life circumstances match their wishes or expectations concerning how they should or might feel
Subjective Well Being
In empirical research, the failure to attain proper standards of objectivity, such that data are interpreted or judgements are made in the light of personal feelings, beliefs, or experiences
Subjectivity
A variable of individual differences in a study (eg; the participant’s sex or occupation)
- A variable of this type is neither manipulated by the experimenter, as an independent variable might be, nor is it usually changed in the course of the experiment, as a dependent variable might be
Subject Variable
In psychoanalytic theory, a defense mechanism in which unacceptable sexual or aggressive drives are unconsciously channeled into socially acceptable modes of expression
- For example, an exhibitionistic impulse may gain a new outlet in choreography
- As well as allowing for substitute satisfactions, such outlets are posited to protect individuals from the anxiety induced by the original drive
Sublimation
Denoting or relating to stimuli that are below the threshold of awareness
Subliminal
The registration of stimuli below the level of awareness, particularly stimuli that are too weak (or too rapid) to affect the individual on a conscious level
- It is questionable whether responses to subliminal stimuli actually occur and whether it is possible for subliminal commands or advertising messages to influence behavior
Subliminal Perception
A scale that taps some specific constituent or otherwise differentiated category of information as part of a larger, overall scheme
- For example, the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale consists of 14 of these assessing various verbal and performance dimensions, which in combination yield a verbal IQ score, a performance IQ score, and an overall IQ score
Subscale
- In psychopathology, a drug or a toxin that is capable of producing intoxicating or harmful effects when ingested or otherwise taken into the body
- In philosophy, that which has an independent, self sufficient existence and remains unalterably itself even though its attributes or properties may change
- Philosophers have differed over what qualifies as this and whether reality consists of a single one (monism) or more (dualism)
Substance
A pattern of compulsive substance use manifested by recurrent significant social, occupational, legal, or interpersonal adverse consequences, such as repeated absences from work or school, arrests, and marital difficulties
- DSM-IV-TR identifies nine drug classes associated with abuse: alcohol, amphetamines, cannabis, cocaine, hallucinogens, inhalants, opioids, phencyclidines, and sedatives, hypnotics, or anxiolytics
- This diagnosis is preempted by the diagnosis of substance dependence: if the criteria for this and substance dependence are both met, only the latter diagnosis is given
Substance Abuse
A cluster of cognitive, behavioral, and physiological symptoms indicating continued use of a substance despite significant substance related problems
- There is a pattern of repeated substance ingestion resulting in tolerance, withdrawal symptoms if use is suspended, and an uncontrollable drive to continue use
- DSM-IV-TR identifies 10 drug classes associated with dependence: alcohol, amphetamines, cannabis, cocaine, hallucinogens, inhalants, nicotine, opioids, phencyclidines, and sedatives, hypnotics, or anxiolytics
- This term currently is preferred over the equivalent addiction
Substance Dependence
A reversible syndrome due to the recent ingestion of a specific substance, including clinically significant behavioral or psychological changes, as well as one or more signs of physiological involvement
- Although symptoms vary by substance there are some common manifestations, for example, perceptual disturbances; mood changes; impairments of judgement, attention and memory; alterations of heartbeat and vision; and speech and coordination difficulties
Substance Intoxication
A neuropeptide found in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord, where it plays a role in the modulation of pain, and in peripheral nervous system tissues, where it acts as a vasodilator
- This also has a role in sexual behavior and has been implicated in the regulation of mood
Substance P
Any of various disorders caused by the effects of a drug or a toxin
- This DSM-IV-TR category encompasses the substance use disorders (substance abuse and substance dependence) and the substance induced disorders (eg; intoxication)
Substance Related Disorder
A syndrome that develops after cessation of prolonged, heavy consumption of a substance
- Symptoms vary by substance but generally include physiological, behavioral, and cognitive manifestations, such as nausea and vomiting, insomnia, mood alterations, and anxiety
- DSM-IV-TR identifies six drug classes associated with withdrawal: alcohol, amphetamines, cocaine, nicotine, opioids, and sedatives, hypnotics, or anxiolytics
Substance Withdrawal
A gelatinous appearing mass of extensively interconnected small neurons at the tip of the dorsal horn of the spinal cord
- Some cells in this contain endorphins and are involved in regulation of pain
Substantia Gelatinosa
A region of gray matter in the midbrain, named for its dark pigmentation, that sends dopaminergic neurons to the basal ganglia
- Depletion of dopaminergic neurons in this region is implicated in Parkinson’s disease
Substantia Nigra
In psychoanalytic theory, the replacement of unacceptable emotions or unattainable goals with alternative satisfactions or feelings
- This may be viewed as a positive adaptation or solution (eg; adoption when one cannot have a child of one’s own) or as a negative, maladaptive response (eg; emotional eating after a frustrating day at the office)
Substitution
A part of the subthalamus that receives fibers from the globus pallidus as a part of the descending pathway from the basal ganglia
Subthalamic Nucleus
A part of the diencephalon of the brain, wedged between the thalamus and the hypothalamus
- It contains the subthalamic nucleus and functions in the regulation of movements controlled by skeletal muscles, together with the basal ganglia and the substantia nigra
Subthalamus
The sudden and unexpected death of a seemingly healthy infant during sleep for no apparent reason
- The risk of this is greatest between 2 and 6 months of age and is a common cause of death in babies less than 1 year old
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)
The experience of pain or acute distress, either psychological or physical, in response to a significant event, particularly one that is threatening or involves loss (eg; the death of a loved one) or a physical trauma
Suffering
A state in which the ideas, beliefs, attitudes, or actions of others are readily and uncritically adopted
Suggestibility
Suicidal thoughts or a preoccupation with suicide, often as a symptom of a major depressive episode
Suicidal Ideation
The act of killing oneself
- Frequently, this occurs in the context of a major depressive episode, but it may also occur as a result of a substance use or other disorder
- It sometimes occurs in the absence of any psychiatric disorder, especially in untenable situations, such as bereavement or declining health
Suicide
A multiprofessional discipline devoted to the study of suicidal phenomena and their prevention
Suicidology
A groove, especially one on the surface of the cerebral cortex
- The term is often used synonymously with fissure
Sulcus
- The process in which a neural impulse is propagated by the cumulative effects of two or more stimuli that alone would not be sufficient to activate the neuron
- (Symbol: £)
- A mathematical operation involving the addition of numbers, quantities, or the like
Summation
The total obtained by adding together the squares of each deviation score in a sample (ie; each score minus the sample mean squared, and then added together)
Sum of Squares
In psychoanalytic theory, the moral component of the personality that represents society’s standards and determines personal standards of right and wrong, or conscience, as well as aims and aspirations
- In the classic Freudian tripartite structure of the psyche, the ego, which controls personal impulses and directs actions, operates by the rules and principles of this, which basically stem from parental demands and prohibitions
- The formation of this occurs on an unconscious level, beginning in the first 5 years of life and continuing throughout childhood and adolescence and into adulthood, largely through identification with the parents and later with admired models of behavior
Superego
In anatomy, higher, above, or toward the head
Superior
In the individual psychology of Austrian psychiatrist Alfred Adler (1870 - 1937), an exaggerated opinion of one’s abilities and accomplishments that derives from an overcompensation for feelings of inferiority
Superiority Complex
A collection of brain nuclei located in the pons
- The cells receive excitatory input from the contralateral cochlear nuclei in the brainstem and inhibitory input from the ipsilateral cochlear nuclei
- The contralatural input comes through the trapezoid body, a concentration of transverse nerve fibers in the pons
Superior Olivary Complex
A goal that can be attained only if the members of two or more groups work together by pooling their skills, efforts, and resources
- For example, in the Robbers’ Cave experiment studying intergroup conflict reduction, these were introduced by creating emergencies and problems that could only be resolved through the joint efforts of both groups
Superordinate Goal
Oversight: critical evaluation and guidance provided by a qualified and experienced person - the supervisor - to another individual - the trainee - during the learning of a task or process
- In psychotherapy and counseling, this by a senior therapist or counselor is required while the trainee learns therapeutic techniques
- A prescribed number of hours of this is required by state licensing boards as part of the requirements for obtaining a license in a mental health field
Supervision
A theoretical higher level cognitive mechanism active in nonroutine or novel situations, responsible for troubleshooting and decision making when habitual responses or automatic processes are ineffective or otherwise unsatisfactory
- Thought to be involved in carrying out a variety of other executive functions as well, it is considered a network for the coordination and control of cognitive activity and intentional behavior
Supervisory Attentional System (SAS)
An area of the motor cortex with somatotopic organization involved in planning and learning new movements that have coordinated sequences
- In contrast to the premotor area, neuronal input to this is triggered more by internal representations then by external events
Supplementary Motor Area
A conscious effort to put disturbing thoughts and experiences out of mind, or to control and inhibit the expression of unacceptable impulses and feelings
- It is distinct from the unconscious defense mechanism of repression in psychoanalytic theory
Suppression
A small region of the hypothalamus in the brain, above the optic chasm, that is the location of the circadian oscillator, which controls daily biological rhythms (ie; circadian rhythms)
- It receives direct input from the retina
Suprachicismatic Nucleus
Describing stimulation that is above the threshold of awareness
Supraliminal
A particular collection of neurons in the hypothalamus that lies above the optic chiasm
- Neurons in this nucleus project to the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland and secrete the hormones oxytocin and vasopressin
Supraoptic Nucleus
In linguistics, denoting those phonological features of speech that extend over a series of consonantal or vowel phonemes (segments) rather than forming individual phonemes
- In English the principal features of this are tone (pitch) and stress
Suprasegmental
A form of acquired dyslexia in which a person is overly reliant on – and therefore has difficulty reading irregularly spelled words
Surface Dyslexia
In the transformational generative grammar of U.S. linguist Noam Chomsky (1928 - ), the structure of a grammatical sentence as it actually occurs in speech or writing, as opposed to its underlying deep structure or abstract logical form
- In Chomsky’s theory, this of a sentence is generated from the deep structure by a series of transformational rules involving the addition, deletion, or reordering of sentence elements
- Psycholinguists have investigated whether and to what extent this may serve as a model for the cognitive processes involved in forming and interpreting sentences
Surface Structure
Psychotherapy directed toward relieving the client’s symptoms and emotional stress through such measures as reassurance, suggestion, and direct attempts to modify attitudes and behavior patterns, rather than through exploration and analysis of unconscious motivation and underlying dynamics
Surface Therapy
A person or object that substitutes for the role of an individual who has a significant position in a family or group
- For example, young children may use stuffed toys as surrogate companions
Surrogate
A person or object that substitutes for the role of an individual who has a significant position in a family or group
- For example, young children may use stuffed toys as surrogate companions
Surrogate
A study in which a group of participants is selected from a population and some selected characteristics or opinions of those participants are collected, measured, and analyzed
Survey
A research method in which the investigator attempts to determine the current state of a population with regard to one or more attributes
- This does not involve any intervention imposed by the investigator
Survey Research
A set of statistical procedures used to build models calculating the time until some event occurs (eg; the death of a patient, the failure of a piece of equipment)
Survival Analysis
The degree to which a behavioral, physiological, or physical trait will contribute to reproductive success
- A trait that can be shown to increase the probability of reproductive success in a given environment has a high one
Survival Value
Remorse or guilt for having survived a catastrophic situation when others did not
- It is a common reaction stemming in part from a feeling of having failed to do enough to prevent the tragedy or to save those who did not survive
Survivor Guilt
Vulnerability: readily affected by or at increased risk of acquiring a particular condition, such as an infection, injury, or disorder
Susceptibility
Attentional focus on a task for an extended length of time
Sustained Attention
A culture bound syndrome occurring among Latinos in the United States and populations in Mexico, Central America, and South America
- After experiencing a frightening event, individuals fear that their soul has left their body
- Symptoms include troubled sleep, lack of motivation, and low self esteem
Susto
- Any relationship in which two species live together in close association, especially one in which both species benefit
- For example, in tropical Amazonia, a species of ant lives on a particular tree species that it uses for food and shelter, at the same time removing lichen and other parasites that might harm the tree - By extension, any mutually reinforcing, interdependent relationship between individuals (eg; between a mother and infant), but particularly one in which one person is overdependent on another to satisfy needs
Symbiosis
Any object, figure, or image that represents something else
- For example, in psychoanalytic theory, this is a disguised representation of a repressed idea, impulse, or wish
Symbol
In Piagetian theory, the cognitive ability to mentally represent objects that are not in sight
- For example, a child playing with a toy can mentally picture and experience the toy even after it has been taken away and he or she can no longer see it
- This emerges early in the preoperational stage and is expressed through deferred imitation, language, play, and mental imagery
Symbolic Function
A sociological theory that assumes that self concept is created through interpretation of symbolic gestures, words, actions, and appearances exhibited by others during this
- In contrast to Freudian and other approaches that postulate extensive inner dispositions and regard social interaction as resulting from them, these people believe that inner structures result from social interactions
Symbol Interactionism
In psychoanalytic theory, the substitution of a symbol for a repressed impulse or threatening object in order to avoid censorship by the superego (eg; dreaming of a steeple or other phallic symbol instead of a penis)
Symbolism
- One of the gestalt principles of organization
- It states that people tend to perceive objects as coherent wholes organized around a center point; this is particularly evident when the objects involve unconnected regions bounded by borders - In mathematics and statistics, equality relative to some axis
Symmetry
Either of two beadlike chains of ganglia of the sympathetic nervous system, one chain lying on each side of the spinal column
Sympathetic Chain
One of the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system (ANS, which controls smooth muscle and grand functions), the other being the parasympathetic nervous system
- It innervates organs ranging from the eye to the reproductive organs and acts as an integrated whole in affecting a large number of smooth muscle systems simultaneously, usually in the service of enhancing “fight or flight”
- Typical sympathetic changes include dilation of the pupils to facilitate vision, constriction of the peripheral arteries to supply more blood to the muscles and the brain, secretion of epinephrine to raise the blood sugar level and increase metabolism, and reduction of stomach and intestinal activities so that energy can be directed elsewhere
Sympathetic Nervous System
- Feelings of concern or compassion resulting from an awareness of the suffering or sorrow of another
- More generally, a capacity to share in and respond to the concerns or feelings of others
Sympathy
Any deviation from normal functioning that is considered indicative of physical or mental disorder
- A recognized pattern of these constitutes a syndrome
Symptom
In the classic psychoanalytic theory of Austrian psychiatrist Sigmund Freud (1856 - 1939), the development of a symptom to replace one that has cleared up as a result of treatment
- It is said to occur if the unconscious impulses and conflicts responsible for the original symptom are not dealt with
Symptom Substitution
The specialized junction through which neural signals are transmitted from one neuron (the presynaptic neuron) to another (the postsynaptic neuron)
- In most synapses the knoblike ending (terminal button) of the axon of a presynaptic neuron faces the dendrite or cell body of the postsynaptic neuron across a narrow gap, the synaptic cleft
- The arrival of a neural signal triggers the release of neurotransmitter from synaptic vesicles in the terminal button into the synaptic cleft
- Here the molecules of neurotransmitter activate receptors in the postsynaptic membrane and cause the opening of ion channels in the postsynaptic cell
- This may lead to excitation or inhibition of the postsynaptic cell, depending on which ion channels are affected
Synapse
The gap within a synapse between the knoblike ending of the axon of one neuron and the dendrite or cell body of a neighboring neuron
- This is typically 20-30 nm wide
Synaptic Cleft
Any of numerous small spherical sacs in the cytoplasm of the knoblike ending of the axon of a presynaptic neuron that contain molecules of neurotransmitter
- The transmitter is released into the synaptic cleft when a nerve impulse arrives at the axon ending
Synaptic Vesicle
The formation of synapses between neurons as axons and dendrites grow
Synaptogenesis
In the analytic psychology of Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung (1875 - 1961), the simultaneous occurrence of events that appear to have a meaningful connection when there is no explicable causal relationship between these events, as in extraordinary coincidences or purported examples of telepathy
- Jung suggested that some simultaneous occurrences possess significance through their very coincidence in time
Synchronicity
Fainting: a transient loss of consciousness resulting from sudden reduction in the blood supply to the brain
Syncope
A set of symptoms and signs that are usually due to a single cause (or set of related causes) and together indicate a particular physical or mental disease or disorder
Syndrome
The joint action of different elements such that their combined effect is greater than the sum of their individual effects, as in drug type
Synergism
A condition in which stimulation of one sensory system arouses sensations in another
- For example, sounds may be experienced as colors while they are being heard, and specific sounds (eg; different musical notes) may yield specific colors
- Research suggests that about one in 2,000 people regularly experience synesthesia
Synesthesia
The structural and grammatical aspects of language, as distinguished from semantics
Syntactics
The set of rules that describes how words and phrases in a language are arranged into grammatical sentences, or the branch of linguistics that studies such rules
- With morphology, this is one of the two traditional subdivisions of grammar
Syntax
- The bringing together or disparate parts or elements - whether they be physical or conceptual - into a whole
- For example, biosynthesis is the process by which chemical or biochemical compounds are formed from their constituents, and mental type involves combining ideas and images into meaningful objects of thought - In philosophy, the final stage of a dialetical process: a third proposition that resolves the opposition between thesis and antithesis
- This then serves as the thesis in the next phase of the ongoing dialetic
Synthesis
- Any collective entity consisting of a set of interrelated or interacting elements that have been organized together to perform a function
- For example, a living organism or one of its major bodily structures constitutes a system - A structured set of facts, concepts, and hypotheses that provide a framework of thought or belief, as in a philosophical system
System
A form of behavior therapy in which counterconditioning is used to reduce anxiety associated with a particular stimulus
- It involves the following stages: (a) the client is trained in deep muscle relaxation; (b) various anxiety provoking situations related to a particular problem, such as fear of death or a specific phobia, are listed in order from weakest to strongest; and (c) each of these situations is presented in imagination or in reality, beginning with the weakest, while the client practices muscle relaxation
- Since the muscle relaxation is incompatible with the anxiety, the client gradually responds less to the anxiety provoking situations
Systematic Desensitization
An error in data or in a conclusion drawn from the data that is regular and repeatable as a result of improper collection methods or statistical treatment of the data
Systematic Error
An objective, well ordered method for close examination of some phenomenon or aspect of behavior so as to obtain reliable data unbiased by observer interpretation
- This typically involves specification of the exact actions, attributes, or other variables that are to be recorded and precisely how they are to be recorded
Systematic Observation
A type of sampling in which all the members of a population are listed and then some objective, orderly procedure is applied to select specific cases
- For example, the population might be listed alphabetically and every seventh case selected
Systematic Sampling
The process - and the specialty area itself - of studying any system (eg; the circulatory system, an organization, a family) so as to comprehend or clarify its internal workings and its purposes, often with a view to improving interrelations among constituent elements or to achieving a desired end more effectively
System Analysis
