R Flashcards
A socially defined concept sometimes used to designate a portion, or “subdivision” of the human population with common physical characteristics, ancestry, or language
- The term is also loosely applied to geographic, cultural, religious, or national groups
- The significance often accorded to racial categories might suggest that such groups are objectively defined and homogenous; however, there is much heterogeneity within categories, and the categories themselves differ a cross cultures
- Moreover, self reported race frequently varies owing to changing social contexts and an individual’s identification with more than one
Race
A form of prejudice that assumes that the members of racial categories have distinctive characteristics and that these differences result in some racial groups being inferior to others
- This generally includes negative emotional reactions to members of the group, acceptance of negative stereotypes, and discrimination against individuals; in some cases it leads to violence
Racism
A type of nonneuronal cell (glia) that forms early in development, spanning the width of the emerging cerebral hemispheres to guide migrating neurons
Radial Glia
A type of maze that has a central starting point with several arms (typically six to eight) extending from the center
- A non human animal might be required to learn to find good in only certain of the arms or to search systematically through each arm without entering the same arm twice
- These have been used extensively to study spatial memory and learning
Radial Maze
The view that behavior, rather than consciousness and its contents, should be the proper topic for study in psychological science
- This term is often used to distinguish classical behaviorism, as originally formulated in 1913 by U.S. psychologist John B. Watson (1878 - 1958), from more moderate forms of neobehaviorism
- However, it has evolved to denote as well the descriptive behaviorism later proposed by U.S. psychologist B.F. Skinner (1904 - 1990), which emphasized the importance of reinforcement and its relationship to behavior (ie; the environmental determinants of behavior)
Radical Behaviorism
Intense, typically uncontrolled anger
- It is usually differentiated from hostility in that it is not necessarily accompanied by destructive actions but rather by excessive expressions
Rage
In conditioning, an arrangement in which the first response after an interval has elapsed is reinforced, the duration of the interval varies randomly from reinforcement to reinforcement, and a fixed probability of reinforcement over time is used to reinforce a response
- For example, if every second the probability that reinforcement would be arranged for the next response was .1, then this schedule value would be 10s
Random Interval Schedule
To assign participants or other sampling units to the conditions of an experiment at random, that is, in such a way that each participant or sampling unit has an equal chance of being assigned to any particular condition
Randomize
A research design in which participants are first classified into groups (blocks), on the basis of a variable for which the experimenter wishes to control
- Individuals within each block are then randomly assigned to one of several treatment groups
Randomized Block Design
An experimental design in which the participants are assigned at random to either experimental or control groups without matching on one or more background variables
Randomized Group Design
Mating behavior without mate selection
- Many early behavioral ecology theories were based on the idea of this, but it is now recognized that most animals select specific mates and often show assortative mating
Random Mating
In conditioning, an arrangement in which the number of responses required for each reinforcement varies randomly from reinforcement to reinforcement
- It is usually arranged by having the same probability of reinforcement for each response regardless of the history of reinforcement for prior responses
- For example, this 100 schedule would result from a reinforcement probability of .01 for any given response
Random Ratio Schedule
A process for selecting individuals for a study from a larger potential group of individuals in such a way that each is selected with a fixed (equal) probability of inclusion
- This selected group of individuals is called a random sample
Random Sampling
The procedure used for random sampling
Random Selection
A variable whose value depends upon the outcome of chance
Random Variable
In statistics, a measure of dispersion, obtained by subtracting the lowest score from the highest score in a distribution
Range
A particular position along an ordered continuum
Rank
A numerical index reflecting the degree of relationship between two variables that have each been arranged in ascending or descending order of magnitude (ie; ranked)
- It is an assessment not of the association between the actual values of the variables but rather of the association between their rankings
- Among the most commonly used is the Spearman, appropriate when the variables being compared do not follow the normal distribution
Rank Correlation Coefficient
The arrangement of a series of items (eg; scores or individuals) in order of magnitude
Rank Order
The nonconsensual oral, anal, or vaginal penetration of an individual by another person with a part of the body or an object, using force or threats of bodily harm, or by taking advantage of someone incapable of giving consent
Rape
A group of serotonergic neurons in the midline of the brainstem that project widely to the spinal cord, thalamus, basal ganglia, and cerebral cortex
Raphe Nucleus
Mood disturbance that fluctuates over a short period, most commonly between manic and depressive symptoms
- This type of bipolar disorder, for example, is characterized by four or more mood episodes over a 12 month period
Rapid Cycling
The rapid, jerky, but coordinated movement of the eyes behind closed lids, observed during dreaming sleep
Rapid Eye Movement (REM)
A warm, relaxed relationship of mutual understanding, acceptance, and sympathetic compatibility between or among individuals
- The establishment of this with a client in psychotherapy is frequently a significant mediate goal for the therapist in order to facilitate and deepen the therapeutic experience and promote optimal progress and improvement in the client
Rapport
The simplest model for item response theory, in which only a single parameter, item difficulty, is specified [proposed in 1960 by Georg Rasch (1901 - 1980), Danish statistician]
Rasch Model
- Relative frequency
- To evaluate or judge subjectively, especially by assigning a numerical value
- For example, a supervisor could assess an employee’s quality of work by choosing a number from 1 (excellent) to 10 (poor)
- Any instrument used in this process is called a rating scale
Rate
A type of neural plotting of the frequency at which action potentials occur
Rate Coding
The quotient of two numbers, that is, one number divided by the other number
Ratio
Numerical values that indicate magnitude and have a true, meaningful zero point
- These represent exact quantities of the variables under consideration, and when arranged consecutively have equal differences among adjacent values (regardless of the specific values selected) that correspond to genuine differences between the physical quantities being measured
- Income provides an example: the difference between an income of $40,000 and $50,000 is the same as the difference between $110,000 and $120,000, and an income of $0 indicates a complete and genuine absence of earnings
- These are continuous in nature (ie; able to take on any of an infinite variety of amounts) and of the highest measurement level, surpassing nominal data, ordinal data, and interval data in precision and complexity
Ratio Data
Pertaining to reasoning or, more broadly, to higher thought processes: influenced by thought rather than by emotion
Rational
A form of cognitive behavior therapy based on the concept that an individual’s irrational or self defeating beliefs and feelings influence and cause his or her undesirable behaviors and damaging self concept
- This teaches the individual to modify and replace self defeating thoughts to achieve new and more effective ways of feeling and behaving
Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT)
Any philosophical position holding that (a) it is possible to obtain knowledge of reality by reason alone, unsupported by experience, and (b) all human knowledge can be brought within a single deductive system
- However, the term “rationalist” is chiefly applied to thinkers in the Continental philosophical tradition initiated by French philosopher René Descartes (1596 - 1650), most notably Dutch Jewish philosopher Baruch Spinoza (1632 - 1677) and German philosopher Gottfried Willhelm Leibniz (1646 - 1716)
- This is usually contrasted with empiricism, which holds that knowledge comes from or must be validated by sensory experience
- In psychology, psychoanalytical approaches, humanistic psychology, and some strains of cognitive theory are heavily influenced by this
Rationalism
An explanation, or presentation, in which apparently logical reasons are given to justify unacceptable behavior
- In psychoanalytic theory, this is considered to be a defense mechanism used to defend against feelings of guilt, to maintain self respect, and to protect from criticism
- In psychotherapy, this is considered counterproductive to deep exploration and confrontation of the client’s thoughts and feelings and of how they affect behavior
Rationalization
In operant conditioning, reinforcement presented after a prearranged number of responses, in contrast to reinforcement delivered on the basis of a time schedule only
- In such schedules, the rate of reinforcement is a direct function of the rate of responding
Ratio Reinforcement
A measurement scale having a true zero (ie; zero on the scale indicates an absence of the measured attribute) and a constant ratio of values
- Thus, on this an increase from 3 to 4 (for example) is the same as an increase from 7 to 8
- The existence of a true zero point is what distinguishes this from an interval scale
Ratio Scale
A nonverbal test of mental ability consisting of abstract designs, each of which is missing one part
- The participant chooses the missing component from several alternatives in order to complete the design
- The test comprises 60 designs arranged in five groups of 12; the items within each group become progressively more difficult
- The test, introduced in 1938, is often viewed as the prototypical measure of general intelligence [John C. Raven (1902 - 1970), British psychologist]
Raven’s Progressive Matrices
An original score before it is converted to other units or another form through statistical analysis
Raw Score
A model stating that in response to a perceived threat to or loss of a behavioral freedom a person will experience psychological reactance (or, more simply, reactance), a motivational state characterized by distress, anxiety, resistance, and the desire to restore their freedom
- According to this model, when people feel coerced or forced into a certain behavior, they will react against the coercion, often by demonstrating an increased preference for the behavior that is restrained, and may perform the opposite behavior to that desired
Reactance Theory
In psychoanalytic theory, a defense mechanism in which unacceptable or threatening unconscious impulses are denied and are replaced in consciousness with their opposite
- For example, to conceal an unconscious prejudice an individual may preach tolerance; to deny feelings of rejection, a mother may be overindulgent toward her child
- Through the symbolic relationship between the unconscious wish and its opposite, the outward behavior provides a disguised outlet for the tendencies it seems to oppose
Reaction Formation
The time that elapses between onset or presentation of a stimulus and occurrence of a response to that stimulus
- There are several specific types, including simple and choice
Reaction Time
Associated with or originating in response to a given stimulus or situation
- For example, a psychotic episode that is secondary to a traumatic or otherwise stressful event in the life of the individual would be considered this and generally associated with a more favorable prognosis than an endogenous episode unrelated to a specific happening
Reactive
A major depressive episode that is apparently precipitated by a distressing event or situation, such as a career or relationship setback
Reactive Depression
An acute form of schizophrenia that clearly develops in response to predisposing or precipitating environmental factors, such as extreme stress
- The prognosis is generally more favorable than for process schizophrenia
Reactive Schizophrenia
A learning disorder that is characterized by a level of reading ability substantially below that expected for a child of a given age, intellectual ability, and educational experience
- The reading difficulty involves faulty oral reading, slow oral and silent reading, and often reduced comprehension
Reading Disorder
The philosophical doctrine that objects have an existence independent of the observer
Realism
Anxiety in response to an identifiable threat or danger
- This type of anxiety is considered a normal response to danger in the real world and serves to mobilize resources in order to protect the individual from harm
Realistic Anxiety
A conceptual framework predicated on the assumption that intergroup tensions will occur whenever social groups must compete for scarce resources (eg; food, territory, jobs, wealth, power, and natural resources) and that this competition fuels prejudice and other antagonistic attitudes that lead to conflicts such as rivalries and warfare
Realistic Group Conflict Theory
In psychoanalytic theory, the regulatory mechanism that represents the demands of the external world and requires the individual to forgo or modify instinctual gratification or to postpone it to a more appropriate time
- In contrast to the pleasure principle, which is posited to dominate the life of the infant and child and govern the ID, or instinctual impulses, this is posited to govern the ego, which controls impulses and enables people to deal rationally and effectively with the situations of life
Reality Principle
Any means by which an individual determines and assesses his or her limitations in the face of biological, physiological, social, or environmental actualities or exigencies
- It enables the individual to distinguish between self and nonself and between fantasy and real life
- Defective ones are the major criterion of psychosis
Reality Testing
The individual’s true wishes and feelings and his or her potential for further growth and development
Real Self
Adjustments made within an employment or educational setting that allow an individual with a physical, cognitive, or psychiatric disability to perform required tasks and essential functions
- This might include installing ramps in an office cafeteria for wheelchair accessibility, altering the format of a test for a person with learning disabilities, or providing a sign language interpreter for a person with hearing loss
Reasonable Accommodations
Thinking in which logical processes of an inductive or deductive character are used to draw conclusions from facts or premises
Reasoning
- To transfer prior learning or past experience to current consciousness: that is, to retrieve and reproduce information
- The process by which this occurs
Recall
In a detection, discrimination, or recognition task, the relationship between the hit rate (the proportion of correct “yes” responses) and the false alarm rate (the proportion of incorrect “yes” responses)
- This is plotted as a curve to determine what effect the observer’s response criterion is having on the results
Receiver Operating Characteristic Curve (ROC Curve)
A memory phenomenon in which the most recently presented facts, impressions, or items are learned or remembered better than material presented earlier
- This can occur in both formal learning situations and social contexts
- For example, it can result in inaccurate ratings or impressions of a person’s abilities or other characteristics due to the inordinate influence of the most recent information received about that person
Recency Effect
The spatially discrete region and the features associated with it that can be stimulated to cause the maximal response of a sensory cell
- In vision, for example, this of a retinal ganglion cell is the area on the retina (containing a particular number of photoreceptors) that evokes a neural response
Receptive Field
The period of time when a female is responsive to sexual overtures from a male, typically (but not exclusively) around the time of ovulation
- This has a connotation of passive female acceptance or tolerance of male sexual overtures
- In contrast, proceptivity conveys active solicitation of males by females
Receptivity
- The cell in a sensory system that is responsible for stimulus transduction
- These cells are specialized to detect and respond to specific stimuli in the external or internal environment
- Examples include the retinal rods and retinal cones in the eye and the hair cells in the cochlea of the ear - A molecule in a cell membrane that specifically binds a particular molecular messenger (eg; a neurotransmitter, hormone, or drug) and elicits a response in the cell
Receptor
The electric potential produced by stimulation of a receptor cell, which is roughly proportional to the intensity of the sensory stimulus and may be sufficient to trigger an action potential in a neuron that is postsynaptic to the receptor
Receptor Potential
A region of specialized membrane on the surface of a cell (eg; a neuron) that contains receptor molecules, which receive and react with particular messenger molecules (eg; neurotransmitters)
Receptor Site
The version of a gene whose effects are manifest only if it is carried on both members of a homologous pair of chromosomes
- Hence, the trait determined by this (the recessive trait) is apparent only in the absence of another version of that same gene (the dominant allele)
Recessive Allele
Relapse
- The term typically denotes the repetition of delinquent or criminal behavior
Recidivism
A concept that opposes the radical or exclusive emphasis on environmental determination of responses and instead maintains that the environment influences behavior, behavior influences the environment, and both influence the individual, who also influences them
- This concept is associated with social learning theory
Reciprocal Determinism
A technique in behavior therapy that aims to replace an undesired response with a desired one by counterconditioning
- It relies on the gradual substitution of a response that is incompatible with the original one and is potent enough to neutralize the anxiety evoking power of the stimulus
Reciprocal Inhibition
The quality of an act, process, or relation in which one person receives benefits from another and, in return, provides the giver with an equivalent benefit
Reciprocity
The social standard (norm) that people who help others will receive equivalent benefits from these others in return
Reciprocity Norm
A sense of awareness and familiarity experienced when one encounters people, events, or objects that have been encountered before or when one comes upon material that has been learned in the past
Recognition
The theory that perception of objects entails their decomposition into a set of simple three dimensional elements called geons, together with the skeletal structure connecting them
Recognition by Compounds Theory
Remembrance, particularly vivid and detailed memory for past events or information pertaining to a specific time or place
Recollection
The exchange of genetic material between paired chromosomes during the formation of sperm and egg cells
- It involves the breaking and rejoining of chromatids (filament like subunits) of homologous chromosomes in a process called crossing over
- It results in offspring having combinations of genes that are different from those of either parent
Recombination
In psychoanalysis, the revival and analytic interpretation of past experiences that have been instrumental in producing present emotional disturbance
Reconstruction
A form of remembering marked by the logical recreation of an experience or event that has been only partially stored in memory
- It draws on general knowledge and schemas or on memory for what typically happens in order to reconstruct the experience or event
Reconstructive Memory
The subjective experience of recalling details of a prior traumatic event, such as sexual or physical abuse, that has previously been unavailable to conscious recollection
- Before recovering the memory, the person may be unaware that the traumatic event has occurred
- The phenomenon is controversial: because such recoveries often occur while the person is undergoing therapy, there is debate about their veracity vis-à-vis the role that the therapist may have played in suggesting or otherwise arousing them
Recovered Memory
The period during which an individual exhibits consistent progress in terms of measurable return of abilities, skills, and functions following illness or injury
Recovery
Any substance that is used in a nontherapeutic manner for its effects on motor, sensory, or cognitive activities
Recreational Drug
Occurring repeatedly or reappearing after an interval of time or a period of remission: often applied to disorders marked by chronicity, relapse, or repeated episodes (eg; depressive symptoms)
Recurrent
Restoration to completeness, particularly the process of recollecting memories from partial cues or reminders, as in recalling an entire song when a few notes are played
Redintegration
The strategy of explaining or accounting for some phenomenon or construct A by claiming that, when properly understood, it can be shown to be some other phenomenon or construct B, where B is seen to be simpler, more basic, or more fundamental
- The term is mainly applied to those positions that attempt to understand human culture, society, or psychology in terms of animal behavior or physical laws
- In psychology, a common form of this is that in which psychological phenomena are reduced to biological phenomena, so that mental life is shown to be merely a function of biological processes
Reductionism
In linguistics and information theory, the condition of those parts of a communication that could be deleted without loss of essential content
- This includes not only repetitions, tautologies, and polite formulas, but also the multiple markings of a given meaning required by conventions of grammar and syntax
- For example, in the sentence “all three men were running,” the plurality of the subject is signaled four times: by all, three, and the plural forms men and were
Redundancy
A form of psychological treatment in which the client learns effective ways of handling and coping with problems and relationships through a form of nonreconstructive therapy, such as relationship therapy, behavior therapy, and hypnotherapy
Reeducation
A group or social aggregate that individuals use as a standard or frame of reference when selecting and appraising their own abilities, attitudes, or beliefs
- According to the general conceptual framework known us reference group theory, individuals’ attitudes, values, and self appraisals are shaped, in part, by their identification with, and comparison to, these
- For example, a reference group theory of values suggests that individuals adopt, as their own, the values expressed by the majority of the members of their reference group
Reference Group
The act of directing a patient to a therapist, physician, agency, or institution for evaluation, consultation, or treatment
Referral
A sensation that is localized (ie; experienced) at a point different from the area stimulated
- For example, when struck on the elbow, the mechanical stimulation of the nerve may cause one to feel tingling of the fingers
Referred Sensation
A statement made by a therapist or counselor that is intended to highlight the feelings or attitudes implicitly expressed in a client’s communication
- The statement reflects and communicates the essence of the client’s experience from the client’s point of view so that hidden or obscured feelings can be exposed for clarification
Reflection of Feeling
Describing or displaying behavior characterized by significant forethought and slow, deliberate examination of available options
Reflective
Any of a number of automatic, unlearned, relatively fixed responses to stimuli that do not require conscious effort and that often involve a faster response than might be possible if a conscious evaluation of the input was required
- These are innate in that they do not arise as a result of any special experience
Reflex
A specific arrangement of neurons involved in a reflex
- In its simplest form it consists of an afferent, or sensory, neuron that conducts nerve impulses from a receptor to the spinal cord, where it connects directly or via an interneuron to an efferent, or motor, neuron that carries the impulses to a muscle or gland
Reflex Arc
Responses to stimuli that are involuntary or free from conscious control (eg; the salivation that occurs with the presentation of food) and therefore serve as the basis for Pavlovian Conditioning
Reflexive Behavior
The quality of a relationship among elements such that they are continuously referential to one another
- For example, in the context of an arbitrary matching to sample procedure, if a stimulus is chosen when it also appears as the sample, this has been shown
Reflexivity
In vision, the bending of light as it passes through the cornea and lens of the eye so that it is focused on the retina
Refraction
A period of inactivity after a neuron or muscle cell has undergone excitation
- As the cell is being repolarized, it will not respond to any stimulus during the early part of this, called the absolute refractory period
- In the subsequent relative refractory period, it responds only to a stronger than normal stimulus
Refractory Period
A process of reconceptualizing an idea for the purpose of changing an attitude by seeing it from a different perspective
- In changing the conceptual or emotional context of a problem, and placing it in a different frame that fits the given facts equally well but changes its entire meaning, perceptions of weakness or difficulty in handling the problem may be changed to strength and opportunity
- In psychotherapy, the manner in which a client frames behavior may be part of the problem
- Part of the therapist’s response might be to reframe thoughts or feelings so as to provide alternative ways to evaluate the situation or respond to others
Reframing
A form of a language associated with specific social functions and situations or with particular subject matter
- Examples include the different types of language considered appropriate for a scientific meeting, a kindergarten class, or a barroom story
- This differs from dialect in that it varies with social context rather than with the sociological characteristics of the user
Register
A return to a prior, lower state of cognitive, emotional, or behavioral functioning
- This term is associated particularly with psychoanalytic theory, denoting a defense mechanism in which the individual reverts to immature behavior or to an earlier stage of psychosexual development when threatened with anxiety caused by overwhelming external problems or internal conflicts
Regression
Any of several statistical techniques that are designed to allow the prediction of the score on one variable, the dependent variable, from the scores on one or more other variables, the independent variables
- This is a subset of the general linear model
Regression Analysis
The mathematical expression of the relationship between the dependent variable and one or more independent variables that results from conducting a regression analysis
- It usually takes the form y = a + bx + e, in which y is the dependent variable, x is the independent variable, a is the intercept, b is the regression coefficient (a specific weight associated with x), and e is the error term
Regression Equation
A straight or curved line fitting a set of data points, usually obtained by a least squares method
- It is a geometric representation of the regression equation for the variables
Regression Line
A phenomenon in which earlier measurements that were extremely deviant from a sample mean will tend, on retesting, to result in a value closer to the sample mean than the original value
Regression Toward the Mean
Any generalized state of arousal or motivation that helps preserve physiological homeostasis and thus is necessary for the survival of the individual organism, such as hunger and thirst
Regulatory Drive
The process of bringing an individual to a condition of health or useful and constructive activity, restoring to the fullest possible degree their independence, well being, and level of functioning following injury, disability, or disorder
- It involves providing appropriate resources, such as treatment or training, to enable such a person (eg; one who has had a stroke) to redevelop skills and abilities he or she had acquired previously or to compensate for their loss
Rehabilitation
- Preparation for a forthcoming event or confrontation that is anticipated to induce some level of discomfort or anxiety
- By practicing what is to be said or done in a future encounter, the event itself may be less stressful
- This may be carried out in psychotherapy with the therapist coaching or role playing to help the client practice the coming event - The repetition of information in an attempt to maintain it longer in memory
- According to the Dual Store Model of Memory, this occurs in short term memory and may allow a stronger trace to be then stored in long term memory
- Although this implies a verbal process, it is hypothesized to occur also in other modalties
Rehearsal
Treating an abstraction, concept, or formulation as though it were a real object or static structure
Reification
In operant conditioning, a process in which the frequency or probability of a response is increased by a dependent relationship, or contingency, with a stimulus or circumstance
Reinforcement
In operant conditioning, a process in which the frequency or probability of a response is increased by a dependent relationship, or contingency, with a stimulus or circumstance (the reinforcer)
Reinforcement
The contingency (relationship) between a response and a reinforcer
- The contingency may be positive (if the occurrence of the reinforcer is more probable after the response) or negative (if it is less probable given the response)
- This can be arranged by establishing dependencies between a particular type of response and a reinforcer (as when an experimenter arranges that a rat’s lever presses are followed by presentation of food), or they can occur as natural consequences of a response (as when a door opens when pushed), or they can occur by accident
Reinforcement Contingency
A stimulus or circumstance that acts effectively to produce reinforcement when it occurs in a dependent relationship, or contingency, with a response
Reinforcer
A thin layer of tissue within the auditory labyrinth that separates the scala vestibuli from the scala media inside the cochlea [Ernst Reissner (1824 - 1878), German anatomist]
Reissner’s Membrane
Denial of love, attention, interest, or approval
Rejection
The recurrence of symptoms of a disorder or disease after a period of improvement or apparent cure
Relapse
Procedures that are used after successful treatment of a condition, disease, or disorder in order to reduce relapse rates
- These often include a combination of cognitive and behavioral skills that are taught to clients before therapy is terminated
- Such procedures are often used with disorders (eg; addictions and depression) that have unusually high relapse rates
Relapse Prevention
Behavior that manipulates or damages relationships between individuals or groups, such as bullying, gossiping, and humiliation
Relational Aggression
Research investigating the strength of the relationships between two or more variables
Relational Research
A connection between objects, events, variables, or other phenomena, particularly a continuing and usually binding association between two or more people, as in a family, friendship, marriage, partnership, or other interpersonal link in which the participants have some degree of influence on each other’s thoughts, feelings, and even actions
- In psychotherapy, the therapist patient relationship is thought to be an essential aspect of patient improvement
Relationship
- Any form of psychotherapy that emphasizes the nature of the relationship between client and therapist and views it as the primary therapeutic tool and agent of positive change
- This is based on the idea of providing emotional support and creating an accepting atmosphere that fosters personality growth and elicits attitudes and past experiences for examination and analysis during sessions - Any form of psychotherapy focused on improving the relationship between individuals, particularly those in a marriage or other committed partnership, by helping them to resolve interpersonal issues and modify maladaptive patterns of interactions, which in turn fosters the healthy psychosocial growth of all parties
- It is an umbrella term encompassing couples therapy and family therapy
Relationship Therapy
The perception by un individual that the amount of a desired resource (eg; money, social status) he or she has is less than some comparison standard
- This standard can be the amount that was expected or the amount possessed by others with whom the person compares him or herself
Relative Deprivation
For two tests (A and B) of the same hypothesis operating at the same significance level, the ratio of the number of cases needed by test A to the number of cases needed by test B in order for the two tests to have the same power
Relative Efficiency
In epistemology, the assertion that there exist no absolute grounds for truth or knowledge claims
- Thus, what is considered true will depend on individual judgements and local conditions of culture, reflecting individual and collective experience
- Such challenges the validity of science except as a catalog of experience and a basis for ad hoc empirical prediction
Relativism
- Abatement of intensity, vigor, energy, or tension, resulting in calmness of mind, body, or both
- The return of a muscle to its resting condition after a period of contraction
Relaxation
The learning again of material that was once known but is now forgotten, a technique for measuring knowledge that may be present even if unrecallable
- Savings in time or trials over the original learning indicate the amount of retention
Relearning Method
In ethology, a stimulus that, when presented under the proper conditions, initiates a fixed action pattern
- For example, a red belly on a male stickleback fish elicits aggressive behavior from other male sticklebacks but is attractive to gravid female sticklebacks
Releaser
Any of a class of hormones secreted by the hypothalamus that control the release of hormones by the anterior pituitary gland
- Gonadotropin releasing hormone is an example
Releasing Hormone
The ability of a measurement instrument (eg; a test) to measure an attribute consistently, yielding the same results across multiple applications to the same sample
Reliability
A sleep disorder involving motor activity during REM sleep, which typically includes an actual physical enactment of dream sequences
- Because the dreams that are acted out are generally unpleasant or combative, this behavior is usually disruptive and can result in violence
REM Behavior Disorder
The process of consciously reviving or bringing to awareness previous events, experiences, or information, or the process of retaining such material
Remembering
A reduction or significant abatement in symptoms of a disease or disorder, or the period during which this occurs
- This of symptoms does not necessarily indicate that a disease or disorder is fully cured
Remission
A cause that is removed from its effect in time or space but is nevertheless the ultimate or overriding cause
- In a sequence of occurrences, it may be considered to be the precipitating event without which the chain would not have begun (the original cause)
- For example, the proximate cause of Smith’s aggression may be a trivial snub, but the remote cause may be Smith’s early childhood experiences
Remote Cause
The increased recurrence of REM sleep, the stage of sleep in which dreaming is associated with mild involuntary eye movements, following a period in which it was inhibited
REM Rebound
Rapid eye movement sleep: the stage of sleep in which dreaming occurs and the electroencephalogram shows activity characteristic of wakefulness (hence it is also known as paradoxical sleep) except for inhibition of motor expression other than coordinated movements of the eyes
- It accounts for one quarter to one fifth of total sleep time
REM Sleep
A technique used to analyze an individual’s personal constructs
- A number of significant concepts are selected, each of which is rated by the participant on a number of dimensions using a numerical scale
- The findings are displayed in matrix form and can be subjected to statistical analysis to reveal correlations
Repertory Grid
In psychoanalytic theory, an unconscious need to reenact early traumas in the attempt to overcome or master them
- In this the early painful experience is repeated in a new situation symbolic of the repressed prototype
- This acts as a resistance to therapeutic change, since the goal of therapy is not to repeat but to remember the trauma and to see its relation to present behavior
Repetition Compulsion
A change in the processing of a stimulus (eg; speed of response, number of errors) due to previous exposure to the same or a related stimulus
Repetition Priming
The repetition of an original experiment to bolster confidence in its results, based on the assumption that correct hypotheses and procedures consistently will be supported
- In direct (exact) type, procedures are identical to the original experiment or duplicated as closely as possible
- In conceptual type, different techniques and manipulations are introduced to gain theoretical information
Replication
That which stands for or signifies something else
- For example, in cognitive psychology the term denotes a mental representation whereas in psychoanalytic theory it refers to the use of a symbol to stand for a threatening object or a repressed impulse
Representation
A strategy for making categorical judgements about a given person or target based on how closely the exemplar matches the typical or average member of the category
- For example, given a choice of the two categories “poet” and “accountant,” judges are likely to assign a person in unconventional clothes reading a poetry book to the former category; however, the much greater frequency of accountants in the population means that such a person is more likely to be an accountant
- This is thus a form of the base rate fallacy
Representativeness Heuristic
The selection of individuals for a study from a larger group (population) in such a way that the sample obtained accurately reflects the total population
Representative Sampling
- In classic psychoanalytic theory and other forms of depth psychology, the basic defense mechanism that consists of excluding painful experiences and unacceptable impulses from consciousness
- This operates on an unconscious level as a protection against anxiety produced by objectionable sexual wishes, feelings of hostility, and ego threatening experiences of all kinds - The suppression or exclusion of individuals or groups within the social context, through limitations on personal rights and liberties
Repression
- In biology, the production of new individuals from parent organisms, which perpetuates the species
- Sexual type involves the fusion of male and female gametes in the process of fertilization; asexual type does not - The process of replicating information from memory
- It potentially is subject to numerous errors of distortion, as demonstrated via serial type and other techniques
Reproduction
The degree to which an individual is successful in producing progeny that in turn are able to produce progeny of their own
- Individuals vary in their success in finding mates and reproducing successfully
- Natural selection is based on this differential reproductive success
- The genetic and behavioral traits that lead to greatest reproductive success survive in a population over generations, while traits producing low reproductive success eventually become extinct within a population
Reproductive Success
The systematic effort to discover or confirm facts or to investigate a problem or topic, most often by scientific methods of observation and experiment
Research
An outline or plan of the procedures to be followed during a study in order to reach valid conclusions, with particular consideration given to data collection and analysis
- These may take a variety of forms, including not only experiments but also quasi experiments, observational studies, surveys, focus groups, and other nonexperimental methods
Research Design
A system for the formulation and evaluation of hypotheses that is intended to reveal relationships between variables and provide an understanding of the phenomenon under investigation
- Generally in psychology this involves empirical testing and takes the form of the scientific method
Research Method
The difference between performance on a psychological task and the individual’s maximum capability to perform that task
- Training, intervention, and practice can be used to minimize this on a given task
Reserve Capacity
In statistics, the difference between the value of an empirical observation and the value of that observation predicted by a model
Residual
A subtype of schizophrenia diagnosed when there has been at least one schizophrenic episode but positive symptoms (eg; delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech or behavior) are no longer present and only negative symptoms (eg; flat affect, poverty of speech, or avolition) or mild behavioral and cognitive disturbances (eg; eccentricities, odd beliefs) occur
Residual Schizophrenia
The process and outcome of successfully adapting to difficult or challenging life experiences, especially through mental, emotional, and behavioral flexibility and adjustment to external and internal demands
- A number of factors contribute to how well people adapt to adversities, predominant among them (a) the ways in which individuals view and engage with the world, (b) the availability and quality of social resources, and (c) specific coping strategies
Resilience
In psychotherapy and analysis, unconscious obstruction, through the client’s words or behavior, of the therapist’s or analyst’s methods of eliciting or interpreting psychic material brought forth in therapy
Resistance
The endurance or persistence of a conditioned response in the absence of reinforcement
Resistance to Extinction
Another name for ambivalent attachment
Resistant Attachment
In optics, a measure of the ability of the eye to detect two distinct objects when these are close together
Resolution
An attitude of, or behavior demonstrating, esteem, honor, regard, concern, or other such positive qualities on the part of one individual or entity for another individual or entity
- This can serve an important purpose in interpersonal and intergroup relations by aiding in communication, for example
- It is considered to play a crucial role as a bidirectional process in psychotherapy according to many theorists and practitioners
Respect
- The series of chemical reactions that enables organisms to convert the chemical energy stored in food into energy that can be used by cells
- The process by which an animal takes up oxygen from its environment and discharges carbon dioxide into it
Respiration
Assistance, supervision, and recreational or social activities provided for a person who is unable to care for him - or herself (eg; because of a disability or chronic illness) for a limited period in order to temporarily relieve family members from caregiving responsibilities or enable then to conduct necessary personal or household affairs
- These services may be provided either in the home or at another location
Respite Care
Any reflex that can be conditioned by Pavlovian conditioning procedures
Respondent
Behavior that is evoked by a specific stimulus and will consistently and predictably occur if the stimulus is presented
Respondent Behavior
Any glandular, muscular, neural, or other reaction to a stimulus
- This is a clearly defined, measurable unit of behavior discussed in terms of its result (eg; pressing a lever) or its physical characteristics (eg; raising an arm)
Response
A tendency to give one response more than others, regardless of the stimulus condition
- In Signal Detection Theory, for example, this is the overall willingness to say “yes” (signal present) or “no” (signal not present), regardless of the actual presence or absence of the signal
Response Bias
The number of responses that occur within a specified time interval
Response Rate
An intermediate stage of human information processing in which a response to an identified stimulus is chosen
- This is typically studied by varying relationships between the stimuli and their assigned responses
Response Selection
A tendency to answer questions in a systematic manner that is unrelated to their content
- Examples include the acquiescent type and social desirability type
Response Set
In psychotherapy and counseling, the verbatim repetition or rephrasing by the therapist or counselor of a client’s statement
- The purpose is not only to confirm that the client’s remarks have been understood, but also to provide a “mirror” in which the client can see his or her feelings and ideas more clearly
Restatement
The electric potential across the plasma membrane of a neuron when it is in the nonexcited, or resting, state
- It is usually in the range -50 to -100 mV for vertebrate neurons, representing an excess of negatively charged ions on the inside of the membrane
Resting Potential
The limitation by a researcher - via sampling, measurement procedures, or other aspects of experimental design - of the full range of total possible scores that may be obtained to only a narrow, limited portion of that total
- For example, in a study of the grade point averages of university students, this would occur if only students from the dean’s list were included
- This on a particular variable may lead to a failure to observe, or the improper characterization of, a relationship between the variables of interest
Restriction of Range
A slowing down of or delay in an activity or process, as in psychomotor retardation or mental retardation
Retardation
The storage and maintenance of a memory
- This is the second stage of memory, after encoding and before retrieval
Retention
An estimate of the ability of an assessment instrument (eg; g test) to measure an attribute consistently: it is obtained as the correlation between scores on two administrations of the test to the same individual
Retest Reliability
A part of the reticular formation thought to be particularly involved in the regulation of arousal, alertness, and sleep wake cycles
Reticular Activating System (RAS)
An extensive network of nerve cell bodies and fibers within the brainstem, extending from the medulla oblongata to the upper part of the midbrain, that is widely connected to the spinal cord, cerebellum, thalamus, and cerebral cortex
- It is most prominently involved in arousal, alertness, and sleep wake cycles, but also functions to control some aspects of action and posture
Reticular Formation
The innermost, light sensitive layer of the eye
- A layer of neurons lines the inner surface of the back of the eye and provides the sensory signals required for vision
- This contains the photoreceptors, that is, the retinal rods and retinal cones, as well as additional neurons that process the signals of the photoreceptors and convey an output signal to the brain by way of the optic nerve
Retina
Any of various neurons in the inner nuclear layer of the retina that receive input from the photoreceptors (retinal rods and retinal cones) and transmit signals to retinal ganglion cells and amacrine cells
- Rods and cones are served by different populations of these, called rod bipolars and cone bipolars, respectively
Retinal Bipolar Cell
Any of various photoreceptors in the retina that require moderate to bright light for activation, as opposed to retinal rods, which require very little light for activation
- In primates these are concentrated in the fovea centralis of the retina, where their high spatial density and the pattern of connections within the cone pathway are critical for high acuity vision
- The cone pathways also provide information about the color of stimuli
- This is achieved by the presence of three different populations of cones, each having their maximum sensitivity to light in the short, middle, or long wavelengths of the spectrum, respectively
- Other animals may have additional populations of bones; for example, some fish have cones that are sensitive to ultraviolet wavelengths
Retinal Cone
The only type of neuron in the retina that sends signals to the brain resulting from visual stimulation
- These receive input from retinal bipolar cells and amacrine cells, the axons of these forming the optic nerve
Retinal Ganglion Cell
Any of various neurons in the retina that make lateral connections between photoreceptors, retinal bipolar cells, and one another
- Their cell bodies are located in the inner nuclear layer of the retina
Retinal Horizontal Cell
The inverted picture of an external object formed on the retina of the eye
Retinal Image
Any of various photoreceptors in the retina that respond to low light levels, as opposed to retinal cones, which require moderate to bright light for activation
- In primates, which have both rods and cones, the rods are excluded from the center of the retina, the fovea centralis
- All rods contain the same photopigment, rhodopsin; therefore the rod pathways do not provide color information to the visual system
- The connections of the rod pathway enhance retinal sensitivity to light, while acuity is relatively poor
Retinal Rod
A theory suggesting that various wavelengths register on the color sensitive components of the retina as a large number of color separated “photos”
- The visual mechanisms in the brain then average together and compare long wave photos with the average of the shorter wave photos, assigning different colors to them according to the ratios between them
Retinex Theory
The process of recovering or locating information stored in memory
- This is the final stage of memory, after encoding and retention
Retrieval
A prompt or stimulus used to guide memory recall
Retrieval Cue
Observational, nonexperimental research that tries to explain the present in terms of past events; that is, research that starts with the present and follows subjects backward in time
- For example, a retrospective study may be undertaken in which individuals are selected on the basis of whether they exhibit a particular problematic symptom and are then studied to determine if they had been exposed to a risk factor of interest
Retrospective Research
A technique for determining which subjects or cases to include in experiments or other research that selects cases on the basis of their previous exposure to a risk factor or the completion of some particular process
- Participants are then examined in the present to see is a particular condition or state exists, often in comparison to others who were not exposed to the risk or did not complete the particular process
Retrospective Sampling
A pervasive developmental disorder that occurs almost exclusively in female children who develop normally early in life but then, between 6 and 18 months, undergo rapid regression in motor, cognitive, and social skills; these skills subsequently stabilize at a level that leaves the child with mental retardation
- Symptoms generally include loss of language skills, hand motion abnormalities (eg; hand wringing and other repetitive, purposeless movements), learning difficulties, gait disturbances, breathing problems, seizures, und pronounced deceleration of head growth [first described in 1966 by Andreas Rett (1924 - 1997), Austrian pediatrician]
Rett Syndrome
The process by which neurotransmitter molecules that have been released at a synapse are taken up by the presynaptic neuron that released them
- This is performed by transporter proteins in the presynaptic membrane
Reuptake
An experimental design that attempts to counteract the confounding effects of sequence, order, and treatment in Latin squares by alternating baseline conditions (A) with treatment conditions (B), for example by employing two sets of three observations (A then B then A; B then A then B) to yield counterbalanced estimates of A versus B
Reversal Design
In discriminations involving two alternatives, the effects of reversing the contingencies associated with the two alternatives
- For example, a monkey could be trained under conditions in which lever presses when a red light is present result in food presentation and lever presses when a green light is on are without effect
- The contingencies are then reversed, so that presses when the red light is on are ineffective and presses when the green light is on result in food presentation
- If the monkey’s behavior adapts to the new contingencies (ie; it presses the lever only when the green light is present), this has occurred
Reversal Learning
In Piagetian theory, a mental operation that reverses a sequence of events or restores a changed state of affairs to the original condition
- It is exemplified by the ability to realize that a glass of milk poured into a bottle can be poured back into the glass and remain unchanged
Reversibility
An ambiguous figure in which the perspective easily shifts between figure ground, such that at certain times specific elements appear to comprise a distinct figure while at others those same elements appear as an indistinct background
- Examples include the Necker Cube and Rubin’s Figure
Reversible Figure
A trade name for Naltrexone
ReVia
The repeated readmission of patients to hospitals or other institutions, often because they were discharged before they had adequately recovered
Revolving Door Phenomenon
A lay word that is nearly synonymous with reinforcement
- Sometimes it is used to describe the intent of someone providing consequences for behavior, rather than the effectiveness of a consequence (as is required in the definition of reinforcement) in influencing the frequency or probability of occurrence of a particular behavior
Reward
The portion of the brain that includes the limbic system; olfactory nerves, bulbs, and tracts; and related structures
Rhinenencephalon
A specialized, membrane bound structure (organelle), consisting of RNA and proteins, found in large numbers in all cells and responsible for the translation of genetic information (in the form of messenger RNA) and the assembly of proteins
Ribosome
The right half of the cerebrum, the part of the brain concerned with sensation and perception, motor control, and higher level cognitive processes
- The two cerebral hemispheres differ somewhat in function; for example, in most people this has greater responsibility for spatial attention
- Some have proposed the hypothesis of right hemisphere consciousness, specifying that this is conscious, like the left hemisphere, even though it has no control of spoken communication
Right Hemisphere
The right of patients with mental illness to refuse treatment that may be potentially hazardous or intrusive (eg; electroconversive therapy or psychoactive drugs), particularly when such treatment does not appear to be in the best interests of the patient
- In the United States, various state laws and court rulings support the rights of patients to receive or reject certain treatments, but there is a lack of uniformity in such regulations
Right to Refuse Treatment
A statutory right, established at varying governmental levels, stipulating that people with disabilities or disorders, usually persistent or chronic in nature, have the right to receive care and treatment suited to their needs
- Such statutory rights may apply nationally or to certain state or provincial areas, or they may be limited to certain conditions and disabilities
Right to Treatment
The right of participants in research to remove themselves from the study or procedure at any point
- Ethically speaking, this prerogative would follow naturally from voluntary participation and from the guarantee that refusal to continue will not result in penalty or loss of any benefits that a participant might have independent of the study
Right to Withdraw
Stiffness or inflexibility
- The term typically denotes muscular type or a personality trait characterized by strong resistance to changing one’s behavior, opinions, or attitudes
Rigidity
- The probability or likelihood that an event will occur, such as the risk that a disease or disorder will develop
- The probability of experiencing loss or harm that is associated with an action or behavior
Risk
A model stating that decision making in situations involving a degree of risk is often driven by emotional reactions, such as worry, fear, or anxiety, rather than by a rational assessment of (a) the desirability and (b) the likelihood of the various possible outcomes
Risk as Feelings Theory
The process of determining the threat an individual would be likely to pose if released from the confinement in which he or she is held as a result of mental illness or criminal acts
- It may be a clinician based prediction of dangerous or violent behavior (clinical type) or it may be based on a specific formula or weighting system using empirically derived predictors (actuarial type)
Risk Assessment
The tendency, when choosing between alternatives, to avoid options that entail a risk of loss, even if that risk is relatively small
Risk Aversion
A clearly defined behavior or constitutional (eg; genetic), environmental, or other characteristic that is associated with an increased possibility or likelihood that a disease or disorder will subsequently develop in an individual
Risk Factor
A pattern of engaging in activities or behaviors that are highly subject to chance, particularly those that are physically dangerous (eg; river rafting, driving while intoxicated) or that simultaneously involve potential for failure as well as for accomplishment or personal benefit (eg; starting a business, gambling)
- In the workplace or in educational settings, this tends to be associated with a degree of creativity necessary for success and thus viewed positively, whereas in other contexts it is often seen as unnecessary or the result of poor decision making and thus evaluated negatively
- Historically, this has been considered a personality trait, more common in men than women, but recent research suggests biological, cognitive, and social factors are involved in this pattern of behavior as well
- For example, current theories include those proposing an evolutionary advantage conveyed by successful ones; those proposing a physiological propensity for arousal as governed by levels of the neurotransmitters dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine; those focusing on obtaining a sense of personal control over events; and those focusing on fostering camraderie with others
Risk Taking
A trade name for methylphenidate
Ritalin
A ritual that marks a specific life transition, such as birth, marriage, or death, or a developmental milestone, such as a bar mitzvah, graduation, or puberty rite
- In many societies such rites are considered essential if the individual is to make a successful transition from one status to another
Rite of Passage
A ceremonial act or rite, usually involving a fixed order of actions or gestures and the saying of certain prescribed words
- Anthropologists distinguish between several major categories of this: magic, which involve an attempt to manipulate natural forces; calendrical, which mark the passing of time; liturgical, which involve the reenactment of a sacred story or myth; rites of passage; and formal procedures that have the effect of emphasizing both the importance and the impersonal quality of certain social behaviors, as in a court of law
Ritual
The process by which a normal behavioral or physiological action becomes a communication signal representing the behavior or its physiological consequence
- For example, the flushed face associated with anger and the pale face associated with fear initially derive from actions of the sympathetic nervous system related to vasodilation and vasoconstriction, respectively
Ritualization
Ribonucleic acid: a nucleic acid that directs the synthesis of protein molecules in living cells
- There are three main types
- Messenger type carries the genetic code from the cell nucleus to the cytoplasm
- Ribosomal type is found in ribosomes, small particles where proteins are assembled from amino acids
- Transfer type carries specific amino acids for protein synthesis
- This is similar to DNA in structure except that it consists of a single strand of nucleotides (compared with the double strands of DNA), the base uracil occurs instead of thymine, and the sugar unit is ribose, rather than deoxyribose
RNA
The ability of a hypothesis testing or estimation procedure to produce valid results in spite of violations of the assumptions upon which the methodology is based
Robustness
A coherent set of behaviors expected of an individual in a specific position within a group or social setting
- Since the term is derived from the dramaturgical concept of this (the dialogue and actions assigned to each performer in a play), there is a suggestion that individuals’ actions are regulated by the part they play in the social setting rather than by their personal predilections or inclinations
Role
A state of uncertainty about a given social or group role
Role Confusion
A technique used in human relations training and psychotherapy in which participants act out various social roles in dramatic situations
- Originally developed in psychodrama, this is now widely used in industrial, educational, and clinical settings for such purposes as training employees to handle sales problems, testing out different attitudes and relationships in group and family psychotherapy, and rehearsing different ways of coping with stresses and conflicts
Role Play
Awareness or adoption of the viewpoint of another person, typically for the purpose of understanding his or her thoughts and actions
Role Taking
A type of love in which intimacy and passion are prominent features
- In some taxonomies of love, this is identified with passionate love and distinguished from companionate love; in others, it is seen as involving elements of both
Romantic Love
An automatic, unlearned response of a newborn to a gentle stimulus (eg; the touch of a finger) applied to the corner of the mouth or to the cheek, in which the infant turns his or her head and makes sucking motions
Rooting Reflex
The square root of the sum of the squares of a set of values divided by the number of values
- For a set of values x1, x2,…xn the root mean square value is ^[(x1^2 + x2^2 + …xn^2)/n]
- In the physical sciences the term is used as a synonym for standard deviation under certain circumstances
Root Mean Square
A projective test in which the participant is presented with ten unstructured ink blots and is asked “what might this be?” or “what do you see in this?”
- The examiner classifies the responses according to various structural and thematic (content) factors and attempts to interpret the participant’s personality structure in terms of such factors as emotionality, cognitive style, creativity, impulse control, and various defensive patterns
- Perhaps the best known, and certainly one of the most controversial, assessment instruments in all of psychology - it is almost considered “representative” by the general public - this is widely used and has been extensively researched, with results ranging from those that claim strong support for its clinical utility (eg; for selecting treatment modalities or monitoring patient change or improvement over time) to those that demonstrate little evidence of robust or consistent validity and that criticize the instrument as invalid and useless [Hermann Rorschach (1884 - 1922), Swiss psychiatrist]
Rorschach Inkblot Test
An effect in which the expectancy an experimenter has about the outcome of an experiment unwittingly affects the outcome of the experiment in the direction of the expectancy [Robert Rosenthal (1933 - ), U.S. psychologist]
Rosenthal Effect
- Pertaining to a beak or snout
- Situated or occurring toward the nose, or beak, of an organism
Rostral
The type of learning in which acquisition occurs through drill and repetition, sometimes in the absence of comprehension
- This may lead to the production of correct answers, but without awareness of the reasoning behind or the logical implications of the response
Rote Learning
A membrane covered opening in the cochlea where it borders the middle ear
- Pressure changes in the cochlea produced by vibration of the oval window are ultimately transmitted to this
- This permits displacement of the basilar membrane and stimulation of the sensory receptors
Round Window
An ambiguous figure that may be perceived either as one goblet or as two facing profiles [Edgar Rubin (1886 - 1951), Danish philosopher]
Rubin’s Figure
A motor pathway that arises from the red nucleus (a collection of cell bodies that receives input from the cerebellum) in the brainstem and descends laterally in the spinal cord, where it stimulates flexor motor neurons and inhibits extensor motor neurons
Rubrospinal Tract
Excessive, repetitive thoughts or themes that interfere with other forms of mental activity
Rumination
