E Flashcards
The organ of hearing and balance
- In humans and other mammals the ear is divided into external, middle, and inner sections
- The pinna of the external ear collects sounds that are then funneled through the external auditory meatus to the tympanic membrane
- The sounds are vibrations of air molecules that cause the tympanic membrane to vibrate, which in turn vibrates the ossicles, three tiny bones in the middle ear
- The motion of the last of these bones produces pressure waves in the fluid filled cochlea of the inner ear
- The motion of the fluid in the cochlea is converted by specialized receptors called hair cells into neural signals that are sent to the brain by the auditory nerve
Ear
A collection of specialized services provided to children from birth to 3 years of age with identified conditions placing them at risk of developmental disability or with evident signs of developmental delay
- Services are designed to minimize the impact of the infant’s or toddler’s condition, and in addition to stimulatory, social, therapeutic, and treatment programs may include family training, screening, assessment, or healthcare
Early Intervention
Any theory of attention proposing that selection of stimuli for in depth analysis occurs early in the processing stream, prior to stimulus identification
- According to this, unattended stimuli receive only a slight degree of processing that does not encompass meaning, whereas attended stimuli proceed through a significant degree of deep, meaningful analysis
Early Selection Theory
Any disorder characterized primarily by a pathological disturbance of attitudes and behaviors related to food, such as Anorexia Nervosa, Bulimia Nervosa, and Binge Eating Disorder
Eating Disorder
The retention of auditory information for a brief period (2 - 3 s) after the end of the stimulus
Echoic Memory
Mechanical repetition of words and phrases uttered by another individual
- It is often a symptom of a neurological or developmental disorder, particular catatonic schizophrenia or autism
Echolalia
The ability to judge the direction and distance of objects from reflected echoes made by acoustic signals
- For example, both bats and marine mammals (eg; dolphins) car locate objects by emitting high pitched sounds that are reflected from features of the physical environment and prey objects
Echolocation
Mechanical repetition of another person’s movements or gestures
-It is often a symptom of a neurological disorder, particularly catatonic schizophrenia
Echopraxia
A theoretical or practical approach that blends, or attempts to blend, diverse conceptual formulations or techniques into an integrated approach
Eclecticism
The function or position of an organism or a population within a physical and biological environment
Ecological Niche
An organism’s detection of the affordances and invariances within its natural, real world environment, as mediated and guided by the organism’s immersion in and movement through that environment
Ecological Perception
An evolving body of theory and research concerned with the processes and conditions that govern the course of human development in the actual environments in which human beings live
- Generally, this accords equal importance to the concept of environment as a context for development and to the role of biopsychological characteristics of the individual person
- The current paradigm is now referred to as the bioecological model
Ecological Systems Theory
The degree to which research results are representative of conditions in the wider world
- For example, psychological research carried out exclusively among university students might have a low ecological validity when applied to the population as a whole
Ecological Validity
The study of relationships between organisms and their physical and social environments
Ecology
The popular name for MDMA
Ecstasy
An excess accumulation of fluid in body cells, organs, or cavities
Edema
A branch of psychology dealing with the application of psychological principles and theories to a broad spectrum of teaching, training, and learning issues in educational settings
Educational Psychology
The magnitude of an effect (influence of independent variables) in a study
- It is often an indicator of the strength of a relationship, the magnitude of mean differences among several groups, or the like
Effect Size
Conducting or conveying away from a central point
- For example, efferent nerve fibers conduct impulses away from the brain or spinal cord
Efferent
Mental activity that requires deliberation and control and involves a sense of effort, or overcoming resistance
Effortful Processing
A phenomenon whereby people come to evaluate a particular task or activity more favorably when it involves something that is difficult or unpleasant
- Because expending effort to perform a useless or unenjoyable task, or experiencing unpleasant consequences in doing this, is cognitively inconsistent, people are assumed to shift their evaluations of the task in a positive direction to restore consistency
Effort Justification
- The self, particularly the conscious sense of self (Latin, “I”)
- In its popular and quasi technical sense, it refers to all the psychological phenomena and processes that are related to the self and that comprise the individual’s attitudes, values, and concerns - In psychoanalytic theory, the component of the personality that deals with the external world and its practical demands
- More specifically, it enables the individual to perceive, reason, solve problems, test reality, and adjust the instinctual impulses of the ID to the behests of the superego
Ego
Psychoanalytic techniques directed toward discovering the strengths and weaknesses of the ego and uncovering its defenses against unacceptable impulses
- This is a short form of psychoanalysis: it does not attempt to penetrate to the ultimate origin of impulses and repressions
Ego Analysis
Speech in which there is no attempt to exchange thoughts or take into account another person’s point of view
Egocentric Speech
- The tendency to emphasize one’s personal needs and focus on one’s individual concerns
- In Piagetian theory, the tendency to perceive the situation from one’s own perspective, believing that others see things from the same point of view as oneself
Egocentrism
In psychoanalytic theory, protection of the ego from anxiety arising from threatening impulses and conflicts as well as external threats through the use of defense mechanisms
Ego Defense
In psychoanalytic theory, the part of the ego that is the repository of positive identifications with parental goals and values that the individual genuinely admires and wishes to emulate, such as integrity and loyalty, and which acts as a model of how he or she wishes to be
- In his later theorizing, Austrian psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud (1856 - 1939) incorporated the ego ideal into the concept of the superego
Ego - Ideal
A personality characteristic marked by selfishness and behavior based on self interest with disregard for the needs of others
Egoism
A type of suicide associated with an extreme sense of alienation
- Lacking significant attachments to family members and others, the person withdraws from society and comes to feel his or her life is meaningless
Egoistic Suicide
In psychoanalysis, an approach that emphasizes the functions of the ego in controlling impulses and dealing with the external environment
- This is in contrast to ID psychology, which focuses on the primitive instincts of sex and hostility
Ego Psychology
In psychoanalytic theory, the ability of the ego to maintain an effective balance between the inner impulses of the ID, the superego, and outer reality
- An individual with a strong ego is thus one who is able to tolerate frustration and stress, postpone gratification, modify selfish desires when necessary, and resolve internal conflicts and emotional problems before they lead to neurosis
Ego Strength
Excessive conceit or excessive preoccupation with one’s own importance
Egotism
In psychoanalytic theory, the inability of the ego to control impulses and tolerate frustration, disappointment, or stress
- The individual with a weak ego is thus one who suffers from anxiety and conflicts, makes excessive use of defense mechanisms or uses immature defense mechanisms, and is likely to develop neurotic symptoms
Ego Weakness
A clear, specific, high quality mental image of a visual scene that is retained for a period (seconds to minutes) after the event
- As with a real time image, this type of image can be reviewed to report on its details and their relation to one another
- Essentially, people with this type of imagery continue to see the stimulus even though they know it is no longer there
- This type of imagery is more common in children than in adults
Eidetic Image
A numerical index, commonly used in Factor Analysis and Principal Component Analysis, that indicates the portion of the total variance among several correlated variables that is accounted for by a more basic, underlying variable
- These are of central importance in linear algebra (ie; matrix algebra)
Eigenvalue
An expectation or readiness associated with particular stimuli
- It may foster a degree of mental inflexibility by instilling a tendency to respond to a situation in a certain way
- For example, a person who successfully solves a series of problems using one formula may apply that same formula to a new problem solvable by a simpler method
- The contemporary term for this concept is mental set [German: “attitude”]
Eienstellung
A linguistic register typically used in formal situations (eg; academic discourse), characterized by a wide vocabulary, complex constructions, and unpredictable collocations of word and idea
- This contrasts with the restricted code used in much informal conversation, which is characterized by a narrow vocabulary, simple constructions, and predictable ritualized forms, with much reliance on context and nonverbal communication to convey meaning
Elaborated Code
- The process of interpreting or embellishing information to be remembered or of relating it to other material already known and in memory
- The levels of processing model of memory holds that the level of elaboration applied to information as it is processed affects both the length of time that it can be retained in memory and the ease with which it can be retrieved - The process of scrutinizing and thinking about the central merits of attitude- relevant information
- This process includes generating inferences about the information, assessing its validity, and considering the implications of evaluative responses to the information
Elaboration
A theory of persuasion postulating that attitude change occurs on a continuum of elaboration and thus, under certain conditions, may be a result of relatively extensive or relatively little scrutiny of attitude relevant information
- The theory postulates that the strength of an attitude depends on the amount of elaboration on which the attitude is based
Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)
An encoding strategy to facilitate the formation of memory by repeatedly reviewing new information and linking it to what one already knows
Elaborative Rehearsal
Harm to an older adult caused by another individual
- The harm can be physical (violence), sexual (non consensual sex), psychological (causing emotional distress), material (improper use of belongings or finances), or neglect (failure to provide needed care)
Elder Abuse
Adjustments to speech patterns, such as speaking more slowly, shortening sentences, or using limited or less complex vocabulary, that are sometimes made by younger people when communicating with older adults
Elderspeak
In the writings of Swiss psychoanalyst Carl Jung (1875 - 1961), the female counterpart of Sigmund Freud’s Oedipus Complex, involving the daughter’s love for her father, jealousy toward the mother, and blame of the mother for depriving her of a penis
- Although Freud rejected the phrase, using the term Oedipus Complex to refer to both boys and girls, many modern textbooks of psychology propagate the mistaken belief that Electra Complex is a Freudian term
Electra Complex
The stimulation of brain cells or sensory or motor neurons by electrical or electronic devices
Electrical Stimulation
A type of connection in which neurons are not separated by a cleft but instead are joined by a gap junction so that the nerve impulse is transmitted across without first being translated into a chemical message
Electrical Synapse
A wavelike tracing, either printed or displayed on a monitor, that represents the electrical impulses of the conduction system of the heart muscle as it passes through a typical cycle of contraction and relaxation
- The electrical currents are detected by electrodes attached to specific sites on the patient’s chest, legs, and arms and recorded by an instrument, the electrocardiograph
- In the procedure, which is called electrocardiography, the wave patterns of the electrocardiogram reveal the condition of the heart chambers and valves to provide an indication of cardiac problems
Electrocardiogram
A controversial treatment in which a seizure is induced by passing a contrived, low dose electric current through one or both temples
- The patient is prepared by administration of an anesthetic and injection of a muscle relaxant
- Now a somewhat rare procedure, it is sometimes used with patients with severe endogenous depression who fail to respond to antidepressant drugs
- Benefits are temporary, and the mechanisms of therapeutic action are unknown
Electroconvulsive Theory
An instrument with a positive pole cathode and a negative pole anode used to electrically stimulate biological tissues or record electrical activity in these tissues
Electrode
A method of studying brain waves using an instrument (electrocephalograph) that amplifies and records the electrical activity of the brain through electrodes placed at various points on the scalp
- The resulting record ( electroencephalogram) of the brain wave patterns is primarily used in diagnosing epilepsy and other neurological disorders
Electroencephalography
The recording (via an instrument called an electromyograph) of the electrical activity of muscles through electrodes placed in or on different muscle groups
- This procedure is used in the diagnosis of neuromuscular diseases, such as myasthenia gravis or amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
- A record of the electric potentials is called an electromyogram
Electromyography
A self conscious emotion in which a person feels awkward or flustered in other people’s company or because of the attention of others, as, for example, when being observed engaging in actions that are subject to mild disapproval from others
Embarrassment
A type of ambiguous figure in which one or more images blend into a larger pattern and so are not immediately obvious
Embedded Figure
A bodily gesture that substitutes for a spoken word or phrase and that can be readily comprehended by most individuals in a culture
- Examples are shaking the head back and forth to signify no and nodding the head up and down to indicate yes
Emblem
The interruption of blood flow due to blockage of a vessel by an embolus, material formed else where and carried by the bloodstream to become lodged at the site of obstruction
- The embolus may be a blood clot, air bubble, fat globule, or other substance
Embolism
An animal in the stages of development between cleavage of the fertilized mess and birth or hatching
- In human prenatal development, the embryo comprises the products of conception during the first 8 weeks of pregnancy; thereafter it is called a fetus
Embryo
A characteristic of a complex system that is not implicit in or predictable from an analysis of the components or elements that make it up and that, thus, often arises unexpectedly
- For example, it has been said that conscious experience is not predictable by analysis of the neurophysiological and biochemical complexity of the brain
Emergent Property
A developmental stage that is neither adolescence nor young adulthood but is theoretically and empirically distinct from them both, spanning the late teens through the twenties, with a focus on ages 18-25
- It is distinguished by relative independence from social roles and from normative expectations
- Having left the dependency of childhood and adolescence, and having not yet entered the enduring responsibilities that are normative in adulthood, they engage in identity exploration, a process of trying out various life possibilities (eg; in love, work, and worldviews) and gradually moving toward making enduring decisions
Emerging Adulthood
Denoting an approach to the study of human cultures that interprets behaviors and practices in terms of the system of meanings created by and operative within a particular cultural context
- Such an approach would generally be of the kind associated with ethnography rather than ethnology
Emic
A natural response that is not influenced by, or dependent on, any external stimuli
Emitted Behavior
A complex reaction pattern, involving experiential, behavioral, and physiological elements, by which the individual attempts to deal with a personally significant matter or event
- The specific quality of the emotion (eg; fear, shame) is determined by the specific significance of the event
- For example, if the significance involves threat, fear is likely to be generated; if the significance involves disapproval from another, shame is likely to be generated
- This typically involves feeling but differs from feeling in having an overt or implicit engagement with the world
Emotion
Nonphysical abuse: a pattern of behavior in which one person deliberately and repeatedly subjects another to acts that are detrimental to behavioral and affective functioning and overall mental well being
- Researchers have yet to formulate a universally agreed upon definition of the concept, but have identified a variety of burns emotional abuse may take, including verbal abuse, intimidation and terrorization, humiliation and degradation, exploitation, harassment, rejection and withholding of affection, isolation, and excessive control
Emotional Abuse
- Any psychological disorder characterized primarily by maladjustive emotional reactions that are inappropriate or disproportionate to reality
- Loosely, any mental disorder
Emotional Disorder
The ability to process emotional information and use it in reasoning and other cognitive activities
- It comprises four abilities: to perceive and appraise emotions accurately; to access and evoke emotions when they facilitate cognition; to comprehend emotional language and make use of emotional information; and to regulate one’s own and others’ emotions to promote growth and well being
Emotional Intelligence
The ability of an individual to modulate an emotion or set of emotions
- Techniques of conscious emotional regulation can include learning to construe situations differently in order to manage them better and recognizing how different behaviors can be used in the service of a given emotional state
Emotional Regulation
A type of coping strategy that focuses on regulating negative emotional reactions to a stressor, as opposed to taking actions to change the stressor
- This may include social withdrawal, disengagement, and acceptance of the situation
Emotion Focused Coping
Related to or arousing emotion
Emotive
Understanding a person from his or her frame of reference rather than ones own, so that one vicariously experiences the person’s feelings, perceptions, and thoughts
- In psychotherapy, therapist empathy for the client can be a path to comprehension of the client’s cognitions, affects, or behaviors
Empathy
Derived from or denoting experimentation or systematic observation
Empirical
A test developed using content, criterion, or construct validation procedures or a combination of these
Empirically Derived Test
- An approach to epistemology holding that all knowledge of matters of fact either arises from experience or requires experience for its validation
- In particular, this denies the possibility of ideas present in the mind prior to any experience, arguing that the mind at birth is like a blank sheet of paper
- Although there is a strong emphasis on this in psychology, this can take different forms
- Some approaches to psychology hold that sensory experience is the origin of all knowledge and thus, ultimately, of personality, character, beliefs, emotions, and behavior
- Behaviorism is the purest form of this in this sense
- Advocates of other theoretical approaches to psychology, such as phrenomology, argue that the definition of experience as only sensory experience is too narrow - The view that experimentation is the most important, if not the only, foundation of scientific knowledge and the means by which individuals evaluate truth claims or the adequacy of theories and models
Empiricism
The promotion of the skins, knowledge, and confidence necessary to take greater control of one’s life, as in certain educational or social schemes
- In psychotherapy, the process involves helping clients become more active in meeting their needs and fulfilling their desires
Empowerment
The family home after the children have reached maturity and left, often creating an emotional void (empty nest syndrome) in the lives of the parents (empty nesters)
Empty Nest
- The process of separating or keeping separate, particularly the ability of some people experiencing delusions to maintain high levels of functioning and prevent their delusions from pervading everyday behavior and cognitive states
- Enclosure, as in a sheath or other covering
Encapsulation
Inflammation of the brain, typically caused by viral infection
- The symptoms, which may be potentially fatal, include fever, vomiting, confusion or disorientation, drowsiness, seizures, and loss of consciousness or coma
Encephalitis
The conversion of a sensory input into a form capable of being processed and deposited in memory
- It is the first stage of memory processing, followed by retention and then retrieval
Encoding
The principle that retrieval of memory is optimal when the retrieval conditions (such as context or cues present at the time of retrieval) duplicate the conditions that were present when the memory was formed
Encoding Specificity
Repeated defecation in inappropriate places (clothing, floor, ect…) that occurs after the age of 4 and is not due to a substance (eg; a laxative) or to a general medical condition
- It may or may not be accompanied by constipation and is often associated with poor toilet training and stressful situations
Encopresis
A group of individuals in which constructive insight, sensitivity to others, and personal growth are promoted through direct interactions on an emotional and social level
- The leader functions as a catalyst and facilitator rather then as a therapist and focuses on here and now feelings and interaction, rather than on theory or individual motivation
Encounter Group
The processes, beginning in early childhood, by which particular cultural values, ideas, beliefs, and behavioral patterns are instilled in the members of a society
Enculturation
Any ductless gland that secretes hormones directly into the bloodstream to act on distant targets
- Such glands include the pituitary grand, adrenal grand, thyroid gland, gonads (testis and ovary), and islet of langerhans
Endocrine Gland
The set of endocrine glands, which synthesize and secrete hormones into the bloodstream
Endocrine System
The custom or practice of marrying within one’s kinship network, caste, or other religious or social group
Endogamy
Originating within the body as a result of normal biochemical or physiological processes (eg; endogenous op: ds) or of predisposing biological or genetic influences (eg; endogenous depression)
Endogenous
Depression that occurs in the absence of an obvious psychological stressor and in which a biological or genetic cause is implied
Endogenous Depression
The fluid contained in the membranous labyrinth of the inner ear, that is, within the scala media, semicircular canals, saccule, and utricle
Endolymph
A type of biological marker that is simpler to detect than genetic sequences and that may be useful in researching vulnerability to a wide range of psychological and neurological disorders
- These may be a useful link between genetic sequences and their external emotional, cognitive, or behavioral manifestations
Endophenotype
A network of membranous tubules and sacs extending from the nucleus to the outer membrane of a typical animal or plant cell
- It is responsible for the processing and modification of proteins and lipids, both for distribution within the cell and for secretion
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Any of a class of neuropeptides, found mainly in the pituitary gland, that function as endogenous opioids
- The best known is beta endorphin; the others are alpha endorphin and gamma endorphin
- The production of endorphins during intense physical activity is one explanation for the runner’s high or exercise high
Endorphin
The tendency of people to place a higher value on items once they own them or once these have been associated with the self in some other way
- This is characterized by increased positive emotions toward the object
Endowment Effect
A specialized region of a muscle cell membrane that faces the terminus of a motor neuron within a neuromuscular junction
- The depolarization that is induced in this muscular region when stimulated by neurotransmitter released from the adjacent motor neuron terminus is called the end plate potential
End Plate
The hypothetical memory trace that is stored in the brain
- The nature of this, in terms of the exact physiological changes that occur to encode a memory, is as yet unknown
Engram
A condition in which two or more people, typically family members, are involved in each other’s activities and personal relationships to an excessive degree, thus limiting or precluding healthy interaction and compromising individual autonomy and identity
Enmeshment
- Enhancement or improvement by the addition or augmentation of some desirable property, quality, or component
- For example, job enrichment policies are designed to enhance quality of worklife and thus employees’ interest in and attitude toward work tasks; marriage enrichment groups are intended to enhance the interpersonal relationships of married couples - The provision of opportunities to increase levels of behavioral or intellectual activity in an otherwise unstimulating (ie; impoverished) environment
- For example, the provision of play materials and opportunities for social contacts has been shown to enhance the development of young children
- In laboratory studies of animal behavior, the addition of physical features or task requirements to an environment elicits a more natural behavioral repertoire from the animals
Enrichment
The extent to which a group or collective is considered by others to be a real entity rather than a set of independent individuals
- In general, groups whose members share a common fate, are similar to one another, and are located close together are more likely to be considered a group rather than a mere aggregation
Entitativity
The belief that psychological attributes, such as level of intelligence, are fixed, essential qualities rather than attributes that develop gradually
Entity Theory
A region of cerebral cortex in the ventromedial portion of the temporal lobe
- It has reciprocal connections with various other cortical and subcortical structures and is an integral component of the medial temporal lobe memory system
Entorhinal Cortex
In chronobiology, the process of activating or providing a timing cue for a biological rhythm
- For example, the production of gonadal hormones in seasonally breeding animals can be a result of entrainment to increasing day length
Entrainment
- A process in which one makes increasing commitments to a failing course of action or an attainable goal in order to justify the amount of time and effort already invested, feeling helpless to do otherwise
- An example is provided by a company that proceeds with the design and construction of a new building for its employees after economic and other changes significantly reduce profits, hurt business growth, and result in staff layoffs that make the new space not only financially burdensome but no longer necessary - A pathological condition in which swelling of surrounding tissue places excessive pressure on a nerve
- Fibers located on the surface of the nerve usually bear the brunt of the compression, while interior fibers tend to be less affected
- Repeated or long term entrapment can cause nerve damage and muscle weakness
Entrapment
Repeated involuntary urination in inappropriate places (clothing, floor, ect…) that occurs after the chronological age when continence is expected (generally 5 years old) and is not due to a substance (eg; a diuretic) or to a general medical condition
- It is frequently associated with delayed bladder development, poor toilet training, and stressful situations
Enuresis
In acoustics, a slowly varying or “smoothed” change in amplitude
- Usually it refers to temporal changes, such as those produced by amplitude modulation, but it can also refer to the shape of a spectrum or to spatial changes
- Temporal and spectral envelopes are important in auditory perception
Envelope
The aggregate of external agents or conditions - physical, biological, social, and cultural - that influence the functions of an organism
Environment
The view that psychological and behavioral characteristics are largely or completely the result of environmental conditions
- Biological factors are considered to be of minor importance, exerting little, if any influence
Environmental Determinism
- The concept that the environment and learning are the chief determinants of behavior
- They are, therefore, the major cause of interpersonal variations in ability and adjustment; accordingly, behavior is largely modifiable - A social movement and position that emphasizes the ecological relationship between humans and the natural environment and strives to protect the environment as an essential resource
Environmentalism
A model of stress and adaptation in which adaptive functioning in the environment depends on the interaction between stimuli in a person’s physical and social environment that interact with needs and place demands on that individual (environmental press) and the individual’s competence in meeting these demands, which is shaped by such personal characteristics as physical health and cognitive and perceptual abilities
Environmental Press Competence Model
A multidisciplinary field that emphasizes the reciprocal effects of the physical environment on human behavior and welfare
- Influences may include environmental stressors (eg; noise, crowding, air pollution, temperature), design variables (eg; lighting and illumination), the design of technology, and larger, more ambient qualities of the physical environment, such as floorpan layouts, symbolic elements, the size and location of buildings, and proximity to nature
Environmental Psychology
The concept that autonomic and cognitive factors combine to form an individual’s appraisal of stressors in the environment as threatening or nonthreatening
Environmental Stress Theory
A protein that acts as a biological catalyst, accelerating the rate of a biochemical reaction without itself becoming permanently altered
- Many enzymes require other organic molecules (coenzymes) or inorganic ions (cofactors) to function normally
Enzyme
The membrane lining the brain ventricles and the central canal of the spinal cord
Ependyma
The study of the incidence and distribution of specific diseases and disorders
- The epidemiologist also seeks to establish relationships to such factors as heredity, environment, nutrition, or age at onset
- Results of epidemiological studies are intended to find clues and associations rather than necessarily to show causal relationships
Epidemiology
- The theory that characteristics of an organism, both physical and behavioral, grise from an interaction between genetic and environmental influences rather than from one or the other
- In genetics, the occurrence of a heritable change in gene function that is not the result of a change in the base sequence of the organism’s DNA
Epigenesis
A common neurological disorder associated with disturbances in the electrical discharges of brain cells and characterized by recurrent seizures that may be manifested as alterations in sensation, motor functions, and consciousness
- Many forms of this have been linked to viral, fungal, or parasitic infections of the central nervous system; known metabolic disturbances; the ingestion of toxic agents; brain lesions; tumors or congenital defects; or cerebral trauma
- Types of seizure vary depending on the nature of the abnormal electrical discharge and the area of the brain affected
Epilepsy
A catecholamine neurotransmitter and adrenal hormone that is the end product of the metabolism of the dietary amino acid tyrosine
- It is synthesized primarily in the adrenal medulla by methylation of norepinephrine, which itself is formed from dopamine
- As a hormone, it is secreted in large amounts when an individual is stimulated by fear, anxiety, or a similar stressful situation
- As a neurotransmitter, it increases the heart rate and force of heart contractions, relaxes bronchial and intestinal smooth muscle, and produces varying effects on blood pressure as it acts both as a vasodilator and vasoconstrictor
Epinephrine
A mere byproduct of a process that has no effect on the process itself
- The term is used most frequently to refer to mental events considered as products of brain processes
- Thus, while mental events are real in some sense, they are not real in the same way that biological states and events are real, and not necessary to the explanation of mental events themselves
- This is conceived of as having no causal power
Epiphenomenon
Memory for specific, personally experienced events that happened at a particular time or place
- This supplements semantic memory and may decline with normal aging
Episodic Memory
The branch of philosophy concerned with the nature, origin, and limitations of knowledge
- it is also concerned with the justification of truth claims
- In psychology, interest in epistemology crises from two principal sources
- first, as the study of the behavior of numer beings, psychology has long had interest in the process of knowledge acquisition and learning of all sorts
- second, as a science, psychology has an interest in the justification of its knowledge claims
- In connection with this concern, most work on epistemology in psychology as concentrated on scientific method
Epistemology
A portion of the diencephalon that is immediately above and behind the thalamus
- It includes the pineal gland and the posterior commissure
Epithalamus
In Piagetian theory, the process by which an individual uses assimilation and accommodation to restore or maintain a psychological equilibrium, that is, a cognitive state devoid of conflicting schemas
Equilibration
Balance, particularly in reference to posture or physiological processes
Equilibrium
The state in which the tendency of ions (electrically charged particles) to flow across a cell membrane from regions of high concentration is exactly balanced by the opposing potential difference (electric charge) across the membrane
Equilibrium Potential
The generalization by U.S. Psychologist Karl S. Lashley (1890-1958) that large areas of cerebral cortex have equal potential to perform particular functions, being equally involved in learning and certain other complex processes, such that intact cortical areas can assume to some extent the functions of damaged or destroyed areas
- Proposed in 1929 following experimental observations of the effects of different brain lesions on rats’ ability to learn a complex maze, the concept has been challenged by subsequent research showing that areas of cortex have relatively specific functions
Equipotentiality
A theory of justice regarding what individuals are likely to view as a fair return from activities involving themselves and a number of other people
- The theory posits that people compare the radio of the outcome of the activity (ie; the benefits they receive from it) to their input with the outcome to input radios of those engaged in a comparable activity
Equity Theory
The discipline that applies a knowledge of human abilities and limitations drawn from physiology, biomechanics, anthropometry, and other areas to the design of systems, equipment, and processes for safe and efficient performance
Ergonomics
The theory of psychosocial development proposed by German born U.S. Psychologist Erik Erikson (1902 - 1994), in which ego identity (a sense of continuity, worth, and integration) is gradually achieved by facing positive goals and negative risks during eight stages of development across the lifespan
- The stages are: (a) infant: basic trust versus mistrust; (b) toddler: autonomy versus shame and doubt; (c) preschool age: initiative versus guilt; (d) school age: industry versus inferiority; (e) adolescence: identity versus identity confusion; (f) young adulthood: intimacy versus isolation; (g) middle age: generativity versus stagnation; and (h) older adulthood: integrity versus despair
Erikson’s Eight Stages of Development
An area or part of the body sensitive to stimulation that is a source of erotic or sexual feeling or pleasure
- Among the primary zones are the genitals, buttocks and anus, the breasts (especially the nipples), and the mouth
Erogenous Zone
The God of love in Greek mythology (equivalent to the Roman Cupid), whose name was chosen by Austrian psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud (1856 - 1939) to designate a theoretical set of strivings oriented toward sexuality, development, and increased life activity
- In Freud’s dual instinct theory, this is seen as involved in a dialetic process with Thanatos, the striving toward reduced psychical tension and life activity
Eros
- In experimentation, any change in a dependent variable not attributable to the manipulation of an independent variable
- In statistics, a deviation of an observed score from a true score, where true score is often defined by the mean (average) of the particular group or condition in which the score being assessed for error occurs, or from the score predicted by a model
Error
The element of a statistical equation that indicates what is unexplained by the independent variables
Error Term
Unexplained variability in a score that is produced by extraneous factors, such as measurement imprecision, and is not attributable to the independent variable or other controlled experimental manipulations
Error Variance
The process in which a subject acquires a response that results in the termination of an aversive stimulus
- For example, it a monkey learns that pulling a string frequently results in the elimination of a loud noise, this has occurred
Escape Conditioning
In philosophy, the position that things for some things) have “essences”; that is, they have certain necessary properties without which they could not be the things they are
- In Marxism, postmodernism, poststructuralism, and certain feminist perspectives, it is the rejected position that human beings have an essential nature that transcends such factors as social class, gender, and ethnicity
Essentialism
Any desire for achievement, reputation, or prestige that is necessary for a sense of personal value and the development of self esteem
- Comprising the fourth level of Maslow’s motivational hierarchy, these thus are dependent upon the admiration and approval of others
Esteem Need
The measurement of sensitivity to touch
- Classically, two different versions of an instrument called an esthesiometer have been used
- One consists of bristles of different lengths and thickness that are applied to determine the minimum pressure intensity required to produce a sensation
- The other is a compass like device to determine the smallest separation distance at which two points of stimulation on the skin are perceived as one
- More sophisticated techniques have not been developed, such as those involving electrodes
Esthesiometry (Aesthesiometry)
A quantity calculated from the values in a sample according to some rule and used to give an estimate of the value in a population
- For example, the sample mean is an estimator for the population mean; the verve of the sample mean is the estimate
Estimator
Any of a class of steroid hormones that are produced mainly by the ovaries and act as the principal female sex hormones, inducing estrus in female mammals and secondary female sexual characteristics in humans
- The estrogens occurring naturally in humans are estradio (the most potent), estrone, and estriol, secreted by the ovarian follicle, corpus luteum, placenta, testes, and adrenal cortex
Estrogen
The cyclical sequence of reproductive activity shown by most female mammals (except humans and other primates)
- Animals that experience one estrous cycle per year are called monstrous; those that have multiple estrous cycles annually are polyestrous
Estrous Cycle
A substance formed by the fermentation of glucose and found in beverages such as beers, wines, and distilled liquors
- It is the most frequently used and abused depressant in many cultures
- When consumed its primary effects are on the central nervous system, mood, and cognitive functions
- In small doses, it can produce feelings of warmth, well being, and confidence
- As more is consumed, there is a gradual loss of self control, and speech and control of limbs become difficult; at high consumption levels, nausea and vomiting, loss of consciousness, and even fatal respiratory arrest may occur
- It has been mistakenly identified as a stimulant, since its stimulating effect derives from an associated loss of cortical inhibition
Ethanol
- The branch of philosophy that investigates both the content of moral judgements (ie; whether such judgements should be considered objective or subjective)
- The principles of morally right conduct accepted by a person or a group or considered appropriate to a specific field (eg; medical ethics, ethics of animal research)
Ethics
Denoting or referring to a group of people having a shared social, cultural, linguistic, religious, and usually racial background
Ethnic
Any major social group that possesses a common ethnic identity based on history, culture, language, and, often, religion
- Members are likely to be biologically related, but an ethnic group is not equivalent to a race
Ethnic Group
An individual’s sense of being a person who is defined, in part, by membership in a specific ethnic group
- This sense is usually considered to be a complex construct involving shared social, cultural, linguistic, religious, and often racial factors but identical with none of them
Ethnic Identity
The tendency to reject and malign other ethnic groups and their members while glorifying one’s own group and its members
- Just as egocentrism is the tendency to judge oneself as superior to others, so ethnocentrism is the parallel tendency to judge one’s group as superior to other groups
Ethnocentrism
The descriptive study of cultures or societies based on direct observation and (ideally) some degree of participation
Ethnography
The comparative, analytical, or historical study of human cultures or societies
Ethnology
The analysis of the underlying conventions and systems of meaning that people use to make sense of commonplace social interactions and experiences
Ethnomethodology
A detailed listing and description of the behavior patterns of an animal in its natural habitat
- The description is objective rather than interpretive
- For example, a vocalization given in response to a predator would be described in terms of its acoustic properties rather than its apparent function of alarm call
Ethogram
The comparative study of the behavior of animals, typically in their natural habitat but also involving experiments both in the field and in captivity
- It is often associated with connotations of innate or species specific behavior patterns, in contrast with comparative psychology
Ethology
Denoting an approach to the study of human cultures based on concepts or constructs that are held to be universal and applicable cross culturally
- such an approach would generally be of the kind associated with ethnology rather than ethnography
Etic
- The causes and progress of a disease or disorder
- The branch of medical and psychological science concerned with the systematic study of the causes of physical and mental disorders
Etiology
A social and political philosophy that seeks to eradicate genetic defects and improve the genetic makeup of populations through selective human breeding
- The eugenic position is groundless and scientifically naive, in that many conditions associated with disability or disorder are inherited recessively and occur unpredictably
Eugenics
An elevated mood of well being and happiness
- An exaggerated degree of this that does not reflect the reality of one’s situation is a frequent symptom of manic episodes and hypomanic episodes
Euphoria
A slender tube extending from the middle ear to the pharynx (connecting the mouth and nostrils to the esophagus), with the primary function of equalizing air pressure on both sides of the tympanic membrane (eardrum) [Bartolommeo Eustachio (1524 - 1574), Italian anatomist]
Eustachian Tube
The positive stress response, involving optimal levels of stimulation: a type of stress that results from challenging but attainable and enjoyable or worthwhile tasks (eg; participating in an athletic event, giving a speech)
- It has a beneficial effect by generating a sense of fulfillment or achievement and facilitating growth, development, mastery, and high levels of performance
Eustress
The act or process of terminating a life to prevent further suffering
- It is distinguished from the much more widely accepted practice of forgoing invasive treatments, as permitted under natural death laws throughout the United States
- Traditionally, a distinction between passive euthanasia (witholding treatment) and active euthanasia (taking directly lethal action) has been made
- In current practice, however, this term typically is used to mean active euthanasia only
Euthanasia
A careful examination or overall appraisal of something, particularly to determine its worth, value, or desirability
- For example, the evaluation of a particular therapeutic technique refers to a determination of its success in achieving defined goals
Evaluation
Uneasiness or worry about being judged by others, especially feelings of worry experienced by participants in an experiment as a result of their desire to be evaluated favorably by the experimenter
Evaluation Apprehension
A specific pattern of electrical activity produced in the brain when a person is engaged in a cognitive act, such as discriminating one stimulus from another
- There are a number of different ERP components, and different cognitive operations have been associated with the amplitude and latency of each
- Because ERPs provide specific information about the precise timing and (given appropriate caveats) location of mental events, they serve as an appropriate bridge between psychological function and neural structures
- Although the terms are sometimes used synonymously, ERPs are distinct from evoked potentials, which are associated with more elementary sensory stimulation
Event Related Potential (ERP)
A strategy commonly used in direct observation that involves noting and recording the occurrence of a carefully specified behavior whenever it is seen
- For example, a researcher may record each episode of apnea that occurs within a 9 hour period overnight while a person sleeps
Event Sampling
The integration of the best available scientific research from laboratory and field settings with clinical expertise so Es to provide effective psychological services that are responsive to a patient’s culture, preferences, and characteristics (eg; functional status, level of social support, strengths)
- In uniting researchers and practicioners, EBP ensures that the research on psychological assessment, case formulation, intervention strategies, therapeutic relationships and outcomes, and specific problems and patient populations is both clinically relevant and internally valid
- Clinical decisions should be made in collaboration with the patient, based on relevant data, and with consideration for the probable costs, benefits, and available resources and options
- The ultimate goal of EBP is to promote empirically supported principles that can be used to enhance public health
Evidence Based Practice (EBP)
A specific pattern of electrical activity produced in a particular part of the nervous system, especially the brain, in response to external stimulation, such as a flash of light or a brief tone
- Different modalities and types of stimuli produce different types of sensory potentials, and these are labeled according to their electrical polarity (positive or negative going) and timing (by serial order or in miliseconds)
- Although the terms are sometimes used synonymously, EPs are distinct from event related potentials, which are associated with higher level cognitive processes
Evoked Potential (EP)
The process of gradual change in the appearance of populations of organisms that has taken place over generations
- Such changes are widely held to account for the present diversity of living organisms originating from relatively few ancestors since the emergence of life on earth
Evolution
An approach to psychological inquiry that views human cognition and behavior in a broadly Darwinian context of adaptation to evolving physical and social environments and new intellectual challenges
- It differs from sociobiology mainly in its emphasis on the effects of natural selection on information processing and the structure of the human mind
Evolutionary Psychology
An increase in the severity of a disease or disorder or of its symptoms
Exacerbation
The electrical activity elicited in a neuron or muscle cell in response to an external stimulus, specifically the propagation of an action potential
Excitation
The theory that emotional responses can be intensified by arousal from other stimuli not directly related to the stimulus that originally provoked the response
- According to this theory, when a person becomes aroused physiologically, there is a subsequent period of time when the person will experience a state of residual arousal yet be unaware of it
- If additional arousing stimuli are presented during this time, the individual will experience more arousal, and thus greater response, to those succeeding stimuli than if there had been no residual arousal
Excitation Transfer Theory
A brief decrease in the difference in electrical charge across the membrane of a neuron that is caused by the transmission of a signal from a neighboring neuron across the synapse (specialized junction) separating them
- ESPs increase the probability that the postsynaptic neuron will initiate an action potential and hence fire a nerve impulse
Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential (ESP)
A specialized type of junction at which activity from one neuron (in the form of an action potential) facilitates activity in an adjacent neuron by initiating an excitatory postsynaptic neuron
Excitatory Synapse
Higher level cognitive processes that organize and order behavior, such as judgement, abstraction and concept formation, logic and reasoning, problem solving, planning, and sequencing of actions
- Deficits in executive functioning are seen in various disorders, including Alzheimer’s disease and schizophrenia
- In the latter, for example, major deficits in such cognitive abilities as selecting goals or task relevant information and eliminating extraneous information are apparent and are a focus of neurorehabilitative treatment
Executive Functions
A paraphilia in which a person repeatedly exposes his or her genitals to unsuspecting strangers as a means of achieving sexual satisfaction
Exhibitionism
A general sense of anguish or despair associated with an individuals recognition of the inevitability of death and associated search for purpose and meaning in life, in light of the finitude of past choices and the unknowns inherent to future choices
Existential Anxiety
A form of psychotherapy that focuses on the entire person, rather than just behavior, cognition, or underlying motivations
- Emphasis is placed on the client’s subjective experiences, free will, and ability to decide the course of his or her own life
Existential Humanistic Therapy
A philosophical and literary movement that emerged in Europe in the period between the two world wars and became the dominant trend in Continental thought during the 1940s and 1950s
- In the immediate postwar years French philosopher and author Jean-Paul Sartre (1905 - 1980), who is usually seen as the existentialist thinker par excellence, popularized both the term “existentialism” and most of the ideas now associated with it
- It represents a turning away from systematic philosophy, with its emphasis on metaphysical absolutes and principles of rational certainty, toward an emphasis on the concrete existence of a human being “thrown” into a world that is merely “given” and contingent
- Such a being encounters the world as a subjective consciousness, “condemned” to create its own meanings and values in an “absurd” and purposeless universe
- The human being must perform this task in the absence of any possibility of rational certainty
- Various forms of existential psychology have taken up the task of providing explanations, understandings of human behavior, and therapies based on existentialist assumptions about human existence
Existentialism
A pathological condition characterized by feelings of despair and anxiety that arise from living inauthentically, that is, from failing to take responsibility for one’s own life and to make choices and find meaning in living
Existential Neurosis
A general approach to psychological theory and practice that derives from existentialism
- It emphasizes the subjective meaning of human experience, the uniqueness of the individual, and personal responsibility reflected in choice
Existential Psychology
A form of psychotherapy that deals with the here and now of the client’s total situation rather than with the client’s past or underlying dynamics
- It emphasizes the exploration and development of meaning in life, focuses on emotional experiences and decision making, and stresses a person’s responsibility for his or her own existence
Existential Psychotherapy
Any gland that secretes a product onto the outer body surface or into body cavities through a duct, for example, the tear producing lacrimal gland or the salivary gland
Exocrine Gland
The custom or practice of marrying outside one’s kinship network (such as a clan) or other religious or social group
Exogamy
Originating outside the body: referring, for example, to drugs (exogenous chemicals) or to phenomena, conditions, or disorders resulting from the influence of external factors (eg; exogenous stress)
Exogenous
In ecological systems theory, those societal structures that function largely independently of the individual but which nevertheless affect the immediate context within which he or she develops
- They include the government, the legal system, and the media
Exosystem
The effect of one person’s expectation about the behavior of another person on the actual behavior of that other person (interpersonal expectancy effect) or the effect of a person’s expectation about his or her own behavior on that person’s actual subsequent behavior (intrapersonal expectancy effect)
Expectancy Effect
The concept that motivation for an outcome depends on the significance of that outcome and the probability of achieving it
Expectancy Value Model
A process whereby synapses are formed and maintained as a result of the unique experiences of an individual
Experience Dependent Synaptogenesis
A process whereby synapses are formed and maintained when an organism has species typical experiences
- As a result, such functions as vision will develop for all members of a species, given species typical environmental stimulation
Experience Expectant Synaptogenesis
A series of observations conducted under controlled conditions to study a relationship with the purpose of drawing causal inferences about that relationship
- Experiments involve the manipulation of an independent variable, the measurement of a dependent variable, and the exposure of various participants to one or more of the conditions being studied
Experiment
An outline or plan of the procedures to be followed in scientific experimentation in order to reach valid conclusions, with consideration of such factors as participant selection, variable manipulation, data collection and analysis, and minimization of external influences
Experimental Design
A group of participants in an experiment who are exposed to a particular manipulation of the independent variable (ie; a particular treatment)
Experimental Group
A premise that describes what a researcher in a scientific study hopes to demonstrate if certain experimental conditions are met
Experimental Hypothesis
A system of scientific investigation, usually based on a design to be carried out under controlled conditions, that is intended to test a hypothesis and establish a causal relationship between independent and dependent variables
Experimental Method
A pathological condition induced in an animal during conditioning experiments requiring discriminations between nearly indistinguishable stimuli or involving punishment for necessary activities (eg; eating)
- This may be characterized by any of a range of behavioral abnormalities, including agitation, irritability, aggression, regressive behavior, escape and avoidance, and disturbances in physiological activity, such as pulse, heart, and respiration rates
Experimental Neurosis
- In the late 17th and 18th centuries, a name for the new discipline of experimental science then emerging
- Use of the term often went with an optimism about the ability of experimental science to answer the questions that had been posed but unsolved by “natural philosophy”
- The systematic work of British physicist Isaac Newton (1642 - 1727) is often given as a defining example of the experimental philosophy - A late 20th century movement holding that modern experimental science, particularly neuroscience, will ultimately uncover the biological foundations of thought and thereby provide a material answer to the questions of epistemology
- In other words, this holds that answers to philosophical questions regarding the mind and its activities can, and likely will, be reduced to questions of how the brain functions
Experimental Philosophy
The scientific study of behavior, motives, or cognition in a laboratory or other experimental setting in order to predict, explain, or contra behavior or other psychological phenomena
- This aims at establishing quantified relationships and explanatory theory through the analysis of responses under various controlled conditions and the synthesis of adequate theoretical accounts from the results of these observations
Experimental Psychology
The extent to which an experimental situation is meaningful and engaging to participants, eliciting responses that are spontaneous and natural
Experimental Realism
Research utilizing randomized assignment of participants to conditions and systematic manipulation of variables with the objective of drawing causal inference
- It is generally conducted within a laboratory or other controlled environment, which in reducing the potential influence of extraneous factors increases internal validity but decreases external validity
Experimental Research
An intervention or regimen that has shown some promise as a cure or ameliorative for a disease or condition but is still being evaluated for efficacy, safety, and acceptability
Experimental Treatment
An independent variable: a variable under investigation that is manipulated by the experimenter to determine its relationship to or influence upon some dependent variable
Experimental Variable
Any unintended errors in the experimental process or the interpretation of its results that are attributable to an experimenter’s preconceived beliefs about results
Experimenter Bias
Any influence an experimenter may have on the results of his or her research, derived from either interaction with participants or unintentional errors of observation, measurement, analysis, or interpretation
- In the former, the experimenter’s personal characteristics (eg; age, sex, race), attitudes, and expectations directly affect the behavior of participants
- In the latter, the experimenter’s procedural errors (arising from his or her predictions about results) have no effect on participant responses but indirectly distort the experimental findings
Experimenter Effect
An account that provides a meaning for some phenomenon or event in terms of causal conditions, a set of beliefs or assumptions, or a metaphor that relates it to something already understood
Explanation
A relatively enduring and general evaluative response of which a person is consciously aware
Explicit Attitude
Long term memory that can be consciously recalled: general knowledge or information about personal experiences that an individual retrieves in response to a specific need or request to do so
- This term is used interchangeably with declarative memory but typically with a performance based orientation - that is, a person is aware that he or she possesses certain knowledge and specifically retrieves it to complete successfully a test overtly eliciting that knowledge (eg; a multiple choice exam)
Explicit Memory
One of a set of techniques used in factor analysis when strong theory is lacking and the observed data are freely explored in search of meaningful patterns among the observations
- That is, the data are examined in order to discover the underlying (latent) variables that explain the interrelationships among a larger set of observable (manifest) variables
Exploratory Factor Analysis
A form of behavior therapy that is effective in treating anxiety disorders
- This involves systematic confrontation with a feared stimulus, either in vivo (live) or in the imagination, and may encompass any of a number of behavioral interventions, including desensitization, flooding, implosive therapy, and extinction based techniques
- It works by (a) habituation, in which repeated exposure reduces anxiety over time by a process of extinction; (b) disconfirming fearful predictions; (c) deeper processing of the feared stimulus; and (d) increasing feelings of self efficacy and mastery
Exposure Therapy
Negative attitudes, in the form of criticism, hostility, and emotional overinvolvement, demonstrated by family members toward a person with a mental disorder
- High levels of this have been shown to be associated with poorer outcomes in mood, anxiety, and schizophrenic disorders and increased likelihood of relapse
Expressed Emotion (EE)
A developmental disorder characterized by impairment in acquiring the ability to use language effectively for communicating with others despite normal language comprehension
- Manifestations include below average vocabulary skills, difficulty producing complete sentences, and problems recalling words
Expressive Language Disorder
- A family unit consisting of parents and children living in one household with certain other individuals united by kinship (eg; grandparents, cousins)
- In modern western societies, the nuclear family together with various other relatives who live nearby and keep in regular touch
Extended Family
The straightening of a joint in a limb (eg; the elbow joint) so that two parts of the limb (eg; the forearm and upper arm) are drawn away from each other
Extension
A muscle whose contraction extends a part of the body; for example, the triceps muscle group extends, or straightens, the arm
Extensor
The canal that conducts sound through the external ear, from the pinna to the tympanic membrane (eardrum)
External Auditory Meatus
A thin layer of myelinated nerve fibers separating the claustrum from the putamen
External Capsule
The part of the ear consisting of the pinna, the external auditory meatus, and the outer surface of the eardrum
External Ear
- A defense mechanism in which one’s thoughts, feelings, or perceptions are attributed to the external world and perceived as independent of oneself or one’s own experiences
- A common expression of this is projection - The process of learning to distinguish between the self and the environment during childhood
Externalization
The extent to which the results of research or testing can be generalized beyond the sample that generated the results to other individuals or situations
- The more specialized the sample, the less likely it will be that the results are highly generalizable
External Validity
Sensitivity to stimuli that are outside the body, resulting from the response of specialized sensory cells called exteroceptors to objects and occurrences in the external environment
- This includes the five senses of sight, smell, hearing, touch, and taste, and exteroceptors thus take a variety of forms (eg; photoreceptors - retinal rods and cones - for sight; cutaneous receptors - Pacinian corpuscles, Meissner’s corpuscles, Merkel’s tactile disks - for touch)
Exteroreception
- In Pavlovian conditioning: (a) A procedure in which pairing of stimulus events is discontinued, either by presenting the conditioned stimulus alone or by presenting the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus independently of one another; or (b) the result of this procedure, which is a gradual decline in the probability and magnitude of the conditioned response
- In operant conditioning: (a) a procedure in which reinforcement is discontinued, that is, the reinforcing stimulus is no longer presented; or (b) the result of this procedure, which is a decline in the rate of the formerly reinforced response
Extinction
A variable that is not under investigation in an experiment but may potentially affect the dependent variable and thus influence results
Extraneous Variable
Pertaining to that which originates outside the mind or that which occurs between the mind and the environment
Extrapsychic
Referring to the punishment of others: tending to direct anger, blame, or hostility away from the self toward the external factors, such as situations and other people, perceived to be the source of one’s frustrations
Extrapunitive
A group of adverse drug reactions attributable to dysfunction of the extrapyramidal tract of the central nervous system, which regulates muscle tone and body posture and coordinates opposing sets of skeletal muscles and movement of their associated skeletal parts
- Manifestations include rigidity of the limbs, tremor, and other Parkinson’s like signs; dystonia (abnormal facial and body movements); and akathisia (restlessness)
- These are among the most common side effects of the high potency antipsychotics
Extrapyramidal Symptoms (EPS)
Alleged awareness of external events by other means than the known sensory channels
- It includes telepathy, clairvoyance, precognition, and, more loosely, psychokinesis
- despite considerable research, the existence of any of these modalities remains highly controversial
Extrasensory Perception (ESP)
One of the elements of the big five personality model and the five factor personality model, characterized by an orientation of one’s interests and energies toward the outer world of people and things rather than the inner world of subjective experience
- It is a broad personality trait and, like introversion, exists on a continuum of attitudes and behaviors
- Extroverts are relatively more outgoing, gregarious, sociable, and openly expressive
Extroversion
An external incentive to engage in a specific activity, especially motivation arising from the expectation of punishment or reward (eg; studying to avoid failing an examination)
Extrinsic Motivation
The organ of sight
- The human eye has three layers: (a) the outer corneoscleral coat, which includes the transparent cornea and the fibrous sclera; (b) the middle layer, called the uveal tract, which includes the iris, the ciliary body, and the choroid layer; and (c) the innermost layer, the retina, which is sensitive to light
- Retinal ganglion cells within the retina communicate with the central nervous system through the optic nerve, which leaves the retina at the optic disk
- The eye also has three chambers
- The anterior chamber, between the cornea and the iris, and the posterior chamber, between the ciliary body, lens, and posterior aspect of the iris, are filled with a clear, watery fluid, the aqueous humor, and connected by the pupil
- The third chamber, the vitreous body, is the large cavity between the lens and the retina fined with thick, transparent fluid called vitreous humor
Eye
A direct look exchanged between two people who are interacting
- Social psychological studies of eye contact generally find that people typically look more at the other person when listening to that person than when they themselves are talking, that they tend to avoid eye contact when they are embarrassed, that women are apt to maintain more eye contact than are men, and that the more intimate the relationship, the greater is the eye contact
Eye Contact
A treatment methodology used to reduce the emotional impact of trauma based symptomology associated with anxiety, nightmares, flashbacks, or intrusive thought processes
- The therapy incorporates simultaneous visualization of the traumatic event while concentrating on the rapid lateral movements of a therapist’s finger
Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EDMR)
Movements of the eyes within the eye socket caused by contraction of the extrinsic eye muscles
- These include movements that allow of maintain the visual fixation of stationary targets; smooth pursuit movements; vergence movements; and reflexive movements of the eyes, such as the optokinetic reflex and vestibulo ocular reflex
Eye Movements
An individual’s recollection of an event, often a crime or accident of some kind, that he or she personally saw or experienced
- The reliability of eye witness testimony is a major issue in forensic psychology
Eyewitness Memory
A self report test comprising 57 yes no questions designed to measure two major personality dimensions: introversion extroversion and neuroticism
- The EPI has been revised and expanded since its initial publication in 1963 to become the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ), the most recent version of which (the EPQ-R) includes 90 questions and measures the additional personality dimension of psychotics [Hans Eysenck (1916-1977), German born British psychologist; Sybil B. G. Eysenck, British psychologist]
Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI)
