E Flashcards
The organ of hearing and balance
- In humans and other mammals the ear is divided into external, middle, and inner sections
- The pinna of the external ear collects sounds that are then funneled through the external auditory meatus to the tympanic membrane
- The sounds are vibrations of air molecules that cause the tympanic membrane to vibrate, which in turn vibrates the ossicles, three tiny bones in the middle ear
- The motion of the last of these bones produces pressure waves in the fluid filled cochlea of the inner ear
- The motion of the fluid in the cochlea is converted by specialized receptors called hair cells into neural signals that are sent to the brain by the auditory nerve
Ear
A collection of specialized services provided to children from birth to 3 years of age with identified conditions placing them at risk of developmental disability or with evident signs of developmental delay
- Services are designed to minimize the impact of the infant’s or toddler’s condition, and in addition to stimulatory, social, therapeutic, and treatment programs may include family training, screening, assessment, or healthcare
Early Intervention
Any theory of attention proposing that selection of stimuli for in depth analysis occurs early in the processing stream, prior to stimulus identification
- According to this, unattended stimuli receive only a slight degree of processing that does not encompass meaning, whereas attended stimuli proceed through a significant degree of deep, meaningful analysis
Early Selection Theory
Any disorder characterized primarily by a pathological disturbance of attitudes and behaviors related to food, such as Anorexia Nervosa, Bulimia Nervosa, and Binge Eating Disorder
Eating Disorder
The retention of auditory information for a brief period (2 - 3 s) after the end of the stimulus
Echoic Memory
Mechanical repetition of words and phrases uttered by another individual
- It is often a symptom of a neurological or developmental disorder, particular catatonic schizophrenia or autism
Echolalia
The ability to judge the direction and distance of objects from reflected echoes made by acoustic signals
- For example, both bats and marine mammals (eg; dolphins) car locate objects by emitting high pitched sounds that are reflected from features of the physical environment and prey objects
Echolocation
Mechanical repetition of another person’s movements or gestures
-It is often a symptom of a neurological disorder, particularly catatonic schizophrenia
Echopraxia
A theoretical or practical approach that blends, or attempts to blend, diverse conceptual formulations or techniques into an integrated approach
Eclecticism
The function or position of an organism or a population within a physical and biological environment
Ecological Niche
An organism’s detection of the affordances and invariances within its natural, real world environment, as mediated and guided by the organism’s immersion in and movement through that environment
Ecological Perception
An evolving body of theory and research concerned with the processes and conditions that govern the course of human development in the actual environments in which human beings live
- Generally, this accords equal importance to the concept of environment as a context for development and to the role of biopsychological characteristics of the individual person
- The current paradigm is now referred to as the bioecological model
Ecological Systems Theory
The degree to which research results are representative of conditions in the wider world
- For example, psychological research carried out exclusively among university students might have a low ecological validity when applied to the population as a whole
Ecological Validity
The study of relationships between organisms and their physical and social environments
Ecology
The popular name for MDMA
Ecstasy
An excess accumulation of fluid in body cells, organs, or cavities
Edema
A branch of psychology dealing with the application of psychological principles and theories to a broad spectrum of teaching, training, and learning issues in educational settings
Educational Psychology
The magnitude of an effect (influence of independent variables) in a study
- It is often an indicator of the strength of a relationship, the magnitude of mean differences among several groups, or the like
Effect Size
Conducting or conveying away from a central point
- For example, efferent nerve fibers conduct impulses away from the brain or spinal cord
Efferent
Mental activity that requires deliberation and control and involves a sense of effort, or overcoming resistance
Effortful Processing
A phenomenon whereby people come to evaluate a particular task or activity more favorably when it involves something that is difficult or unpleasant
- Because expending effort to perform a useless or unenjoyable task, or experiencing unpleasant consequences in doing this, is cognitively inconsistent, people are assumed to shift their evaluations of the task in a positive direction to restore consistency
Effort Justification
- The self, particularly the conscious sense of self (Latin, “I”)
- In its popular and quasi technical sense, it refers to all the psychological phenomena and processes that are related to the self and that comprise the individual’s attitudes, values, and concerns - In psychoanalytic theory, the component of the personality that deals with the external world and its practical demands
- More specifically, it enables the individual to perceive, reason, solve problems, test reality, and adjust the instinctual impulses of the ID to the behests of the superego
Ego
Psychoanalytic techniques directed toward discovering the strengths and weaknesses of the ego and uncovering its defenses against unacceptable impulses
- This is a short form of psychoanalysis: it does not attempt to penetrate to the ultimate origin of impulses and repressions
Ego Analysis
Speech in which there is no attempt to exchange thoughts or take into account another person’s point of view
Egocentric Speech
- The tendency to emphasize one’s personal needs and focus on one’s individual concerns
- In Piagetian theory, the tendency to perceive the situation from one’s own perspective, believing that others see things from the same point of view as oneself
Egocentrism
In psychoanalytic theory, protection of the ego from anxiety arising from threatening impulses and conflicts as well as external threats through the use of defense mechanisms
Ego Defense
In psychoanalytic theory, the part of the ego that is the repository of positive identifications with parental goals and values that the individual genuinely admires and wishes to emulate, such as integrity and loyalty, and which acts as a model of how he or she wishes to be
- In his later theorizing, Austrian psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud (1856 - 1939) incorporated the ego ideal into the concept of the superego
Ego - Ideal
A personality characteristic marked by selfishness and behavior based on self interest with disregard for the needs of others
Egoism
A type of suicide associated with an extreme sense of alienation
- Lacking significant attachments to family members and others, the person withdraws from society and comes to feel his or her life is meaningless
Egoistic Suicide
In psychoanalysis, an approach that emphasizes the functions of the ego in controlling impulses and dealing with the external environment
- This is in contrast to ID psychology, which focuses on the primitive instincts of sex and hostility
Ego Psychology
In psychoanalytic theory, the ability of the ego to maintain an effective balance between the inner impulses of the ID, the superego, and outer reality
- An individual with a strong ego is thus one who is able to tolerate frustration and stress, postpone gratification, modify selfish desires when necessary, and resolve internal conflicts and emotional problems before they lead to neurosis
Ego Strength
Excessive conceit or excessive preoccupation with one’s own importance
Egotism
In psychoanalytic theory, the inability of the ego to control impulses and tolerate frustration, disappointment, or stress
- The individual with a weak ego is thus one who suffers from anxiety and conflicts, makes excessive use of defense mechanisms or uses immature defense mechanisms, and is likely to develop neurotic symptoms
Ego Weakness
A clear, specific, high quality mental image of a visual scene that is retained for a period (seconds to minutes) after the event
- As with a real time image, this type of image can be reviewed to report on its details and their relation to one another
- Essentially, people with this type of imagery continue to see the stimulus even though they know it is no longer there
- This type of imagery is more common in children than in adults
Eidetic Image
A numerical index, commonly used in Factor Analysis and Principal Component Analysis, that indicates the portion of the total variance among several correlated variables that is accounted for by a more basic, underlying variable
- These are of central importance in linear algebra (ie; matrix algebra)
Eigenvalue
An expectation or readiness associated with particular stimuli
- It may foster a degree of mental inflexibility by instilling a tendency to respond to a situation in a certain way
- For example, a person who successfully solves a series of problems using one formula may apply that same formula to a new problem solvable by a simpler method
- The contemporary term for this concept is mental set [German: “attitude”]
Eienstellung
A linguistic register typically used in formal situations (eg; academic discourse), characterized by a wide vocabulary, complex constructions, and unpredictable collocations of word and idea
- This contrasts with the restricted code used in much informal conversation, which is characterized by a narrow vocabulary, simple constructions, and predictable ritualized forms, with much reliance on context and nonverbal communication to convey meaning
Elaborated Code
- The process of interpreting or embellishing information to be remembered or of relating it to other material already known and in memory
- The levels of processing model of memory holds that the level of elaboration applied to information as it is processed affects both the length of time that it can be retained in memory and the ease with which it can be retrieved - The process of scrutinizing and thinking about the central merits of attitude- relevant information
- This process includes generating inferences about the information, assessing its validity, and considering the implications of evaluative responses to the information
Elaboration
A theory of persuasion postulating that attitude change occurs on a continuum of elaboration and thus, under certain conditions, may be a result of relatively extensive or relatively little scrutiny of attitude relevant information
- The theory postulates that the strength of an attitude depends on the amount of elaboration on which the attitude is based
Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)
An encoding strategy to facilitate the formation of memory by repeatedly reviewing new information and linking it to what one already knows
Elaborative Rehearsal
Harm to an older adult caused by another individual
- The harm can be physical (violence), sexual (non consensual sex), psychological (causing emotional distress), material (improper use of belongings or finances), or neglect (failure to provide needed care)
Elder Abuse
Adjustments to speech patterns, such as speaking more slowly, shortening sentences, or using limited or less complex vocabulary, that are sometimes made by younger people when communicating with older adults
Elderspeak
In the writings of Swiss psychoanalyst Carl Jung (1875 - 1961), the female counterpart of Sigmund Freud’s Oedipus Complex, involving the daughter’s love for her father, jealousy toward the mother, and blame of the mother for depriving her of a penis
- Although Freud rejected the phrase, using the term Oedipus Complex to refer to both boys and girls, many modern textbooks of psychology propagate the mistaken belief that Electra Complex is a Freudian term
Electra Complex
The stimulation of brain cells or sensory or motor neurons by electrical or electronic devices
Electrical Stimulation
A type of connection in which neurons are not separated by a cleft but instead are joined by a gap junction so that the nerve impulse is transmitted across without first being translated into a chemical message
Electrical Synapse
A wavelike tracing, either printed or displayed on a monitor, that represents the electrical impulses of the conduction system of the heart muscle as it passes through a typical cycle of contraction and relaxation
- The electrical currents are detected by electrodes attached to specific sites on the patient’s chest, legs, and arms and recorded by an instrument, the electrocardiograph
- In the procedure, which is called electrocardiography, the wave patterns of the electrocardiogram reveal the condition of the heart chambers and valves to provide an indication of cardiac problems
Electrocardiogram
A controversial treatment in which a seizure is induced by passing a contrived, low dose electric current through one or both temples
- The patient is prepared by administration of an anesthetic and injection of a muscle relaxant
- Now a somewhat rare procedure, it is sometimes used with patients with severe endogenous depression who fail to respond to antidepressant drugs
- Benefits are temporary, and the mechanisms of therapeutic action are unknown
Electroconvulsive Theory
An instrument with a positive pole cathode and a negative pole anode used to electrically stimulate biological tissues or record electrical activity in these tissues
Electrode
A method of studying brain waves using an instrument (electrocephalograph) that amplifies and records the electrical activity of the brain through electrodes placed at various points on the scalp
- The resulting record ( electroencephalogram) of the brain wave patterns is primarily used in diagnosing epilepsy and other neurological disorders
Electroencephalography
The recording (via an instrument called an electromyograph) of the electrical activity of muscles through electrodes placed in or on different muscle groups
- This procedure is used in the diagnosis of neuromuscular diseases, such as myasthenia gravis or amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
- A record of the electric potentials is called an electromyogram
Electromyography
A self conscious emotion in which a person feels awkward or flustered in other people’s company or because of the attention of others, as, for example, when being observed engaging in actions that are subject to mild disapproval from others
Embarrassment
A type of ambiguous figure in which one or more images blend into a larger pattern and so are not immediately obvious
Embedded Figure
A bodily gesture that substitutes for a spoken word or phrase and that can be readily comprehended by most individuals in a culture
- Examples are shaking the head back and forth to signify no and nodding the head up and down to indicate yes
Emblem
The interruption of blood flow due to blockage of a vessel by an embolus, material formed else where and carried by the bloodstream to become lodged at the site of obstruction
- The embolus may be a blood clot, air bubble, fat globule, or other substance
Embolism
An animal in the stages of development between cleavage of the fertilized mess and birth or hatching
- In human prenatal development, the embryo comprises the products of conception during the first 8 weeks of pregnancy; thereafter it is called a fetus
Embryo
A characteristic of a complex system that is not implicit in or predictable from an analysis of the components or elements that make it up and that, thus, often arises unexpectedly
- For example, it has been said that conscious experience is not predictable by analysis of the neurophysiological and biochemical complexity of the brain
Emergent Property
A developmental stage that is neither adolescence nor young adulthood but is theoretically and empirically distinct from them both, spanning the late teens through the twenties, with a focus on ages 18-25
- It is distinguished by relative independence from social roles and from normative expectations
- Having left the dependency of childhood and adolescence, and having not yet entered the enduring responsibilities that are normative in adulthood, they engage in identity exploration, a process of trying out various life possibilities (eg; in love, work, and worldviews) and gradually moving toward making enduring decisions
Emerging Adulthood
Denoting an approach to the study of human cultures that interprets behaviors and practices in terms of the system of meanings created by and operative within a particular cultural context
- Such an approach would generally be of the kind associated with ethnography rather than ethnology
Emic
A natural response that is not influenced by, or dependent on, any external stimuli
Emitted Behavior
A complex reaction pattern, involving experiential, behavioral, and physiological elements, by which the individual attempts to deal with a personally significant matter or event
- The specific quality of the emotion (eg; fear, shame) is determined by the specific significance of the event
- For example, if the significance involves threat, fear is likely to be generated; if the significance involves disapproval from another, shame is likely to be generated
- This typically involves feeling but differs from feeling in having an overt or implicit engagement with the world
Emotion
Nonphysical abuse: a pattern of behavior in which one person deliberately and repeatedly subjects another to acts that are detrimental to behavioral and affective functioning and overall mental well being
- Researchers have yet to formulate a universally agreed upon definition of the concept, but have identified a variety of burns emotional abuse may take, including verbal abuse, intimidation and terrorization, humiliation and degradation, exploitation, harassment, rejection and withholding of affection, isolation, and excessive control
Emotional Abuse
- Any psychological disorder characterized primarily by maladjustive emotional reactions that are inappropriate or disproportionate to reality
- Loosely, any mental disorder
Emotional Disorder
The ability to process emotional information and use it in reasoning and other cognitive activities
- It comprises four abilities: to perceive and appraise emotions accurately; to access and evoke emotions when they facilitate cognition; to comprehend emotional language and make use of emotional information; and to regulate one’s own and others’ emotions to promote growth and well being
Emotional Intelligence
The ability of an individual to modulate an emotion or set of emotions
- Techniques of conscious emotional regulation can include learning to construe situations differently in order to manage them better and recognizing how different behaviors can be used in the service of a given emotional state
Emotional Regulation
A type of coping strategy that focuses on regulating negative emotional reactions to a stressor, as opposed to taking actions to change the stressor
- This may include social withdrawal, disengagement, and acceptance of the situation
Emotion Focused Coping
Related to or arousing emotion
Emotive
Understanding a person from his or her frame of reference rather than ones own, so that one vicariously experiences the person’s feelings, perceptions, and thoughts
- In psychotherapy, therapist empathy for the client can be a path to comprehension of the client’s cognitions, affects, or behaviors
Empathy
Derived from or denoting experimentation or systematic observation
Empirical
A test developed using content, criterion, or construct validation procedures or a combination of these
Empirically Derived Test
- An approach to epistemology holding that all knowledge of matters of fact either arises from experience or requires experience for its validation
- In particular, this denies the possibility of ideas present in the mind prior to any experience, arguing that the mind at birth is like a blank sheet of paper
- Although there is a strong emphasis on this in psychology, this can take different forms
- Some approaches to psychology hold that sensory experience is the origin of all knowledge and thus, ultimately, of personality, character, beliefs, emotions, and behavior
- Behaviorism is the purest form of this in this sense
- Advocates of other theoretical approaches to psychology, such as phrenomology, argue that the definition of experience as only sensory experience is too narrow - The view that experimentation is the most important, if not the only, foundation of scientific knowledge and the means by which individuals evaluate truth claims or the adequacy of theories and models
Empiricism
The promotion of the skins, knowledge, and confidence necessary to take greater control of one’s life, as in certain educational or social schemes
- In psychotherapy, the process involves helping clients become more active in meeting their needs and fulfilling their desires
Empowerment
The family home after the children have reached maturity and left, often creating an emotional void (empty nest syndrome) in the lives of the parents (empty nesters)
Empty Nest
- The process of separating or keeping separate, particularly the ability of some people experiencing delusions to maintain high levels of functioning and prevent their delusions from pervading everyday behavior and cognitive states
- Enclosure, as in a sheath or other covering
Encapsulation
Inflammation of the brain, typically caused by viral infection
- The symptoms, which may be potentially fatal, include fever, vomiting, confusion or disorientation, drowsiness, seizures, and loss of consciousness or coma
Encephalitis
The conversion of a sensory input into a form capable of being processed and deposited in memory
- It is the first stage of memory processing, followed by retention and then retrieval
Encoding
The principle that retrieval of memory is optimal when the retrieval conditions (such as context or cues present at the time of retrieval) duplicate the conditions that were present when the memory was formed
Encoding Specificity
Repeated defecation in inappropriate places (clothing, floor, ect…) that occurs after the age of 4 and is not due to a substance (eg; a laxative) or to a general medical condition
- It may or may not be accompanied by constipation and is often associated with poor toilet training and stressful situations
Encopresis
A group of individuals in which constructive insight, sensitivity to others, and personal growth are promoted through direct interactions on an emotional and social level
- The leader functions as a catalyst and facilitator rather then as a therapist and focuses on here and now feelings and interaction, rather than on theory or individual motivation
Encounter Group
The processes, beginning in early childhood, by which particular cultural values, ideas, beliefs, and behavioral patterns are instilled in the members of a society
Enculturation
Any ductless gland that secretes hormones directly into the bloodstream to act on distant targets
- Such glands include the pituitary grand, adrenal grand, thyroid gland, gonads (testis and ovary), and islet of langerhans
Endocrine Gland
The set of endocrine glands, which synthesize and secrete hormones into the bloodstream
Endocrine System
The custom or practice of marrying within one’s kinship network, caste, or other religious or social group
Endogamy
Originating within the body as a result of normal biochemical or physiological processes (eg; endogenous op: ds) or of predisposing biological or genetic influences (eg; endogenous depression)
Endogenous
Depression that occurs in the absence of an obvious psychological stressor and in which a biological or genetic cause is implied
Endogenous Depression
The fluid contained in the membranous labyrinth of the inner ear, that is, within the scala media, semicircular canals, saccule, and utricle
Endolymph
A type of biological marker that is simpler to detect than genetic sequences and that may be useful in researching vulnerability to a wide range of psychological and neurological disorders
- These may be a useful link between genetic sequences and their external emotional, cognitive, or behavioral manifestations
Endophenotype
A network of membranous tubules and sacs extending from the nucleus to the outer membrane of a typical animal or plant cell
- It is responsible for the processing and modification of proteins and lipids, both for distribution within the cell and for secretion
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Any of a class of neuropeptides, found mainly in the pituitary gland, that function as endogenous opioids
- The best known is beta endorphin; the others are alpha endorphin and gamma endorphin
- The production of endorphins during intense physical activity is one explanation for the runner’s high or exercise high
Endorphin
The tendency of people to place a higher value on items once they own them or once these have been associated with the self in some other way
- This is characterized by increased positive emotions toward the object
Endowment Effect
A specialized region of a muscle cell membrane that faces the terminus of a motor neuron within a neuromuscular junction
- The depolarization that is induced in this muscular region when stimulated by neurotransmitter released from the adjacent motor neuron terminus is called the end plate potential
End Plate
