D Flashcards
The ability of the eye to adjust to conditions of low illumination by means of an increased sensitivity to light
- The bulk of the process takes 30 minutes and involves expansion of the pupils and retinal alterations, specifically the regeneration of rhodopsin and iodopsin
Dark Adaptation
Observations or measurements, usually quantified and obtained in the course of research
Data
The process of applying graphical, statistical, or quantitative techniques to a set of data (observations or measurements) in order to summarize it or to find general patterns
Data Analysis
A systematic gathering of information for research or practical purposes
- Examples include mail surveys, interviews, laboratory experiments, and psychological testing
Data Collection
The automated (computerized) examination of a large set of observations or measurements, particularly as connected in a complex database, in order to discover patterns, correlations, and other regularities that can be used for predictive purposes
- Although a relatively new discipline, this has become a widely utilized technique within commercial and scientific research
- For example, retailers often use this to predict the future buying trends of customers or design targeted marketing strategies, while clinicians may use it to determine variables predicting hospitalization in psychological disorders
- This incorporates methods from statistics, logic, and artificial intelligence
Data Mining
A collection of individual but related observations or measurements considered as a single entity
- For example, the entire range of scores obtained from a class of students taking a particular test would constitute this
Data Set
A waking fantasy or reverie, in which wishes, expectations, and other potentialities are played out in imagination
- Part of the stream of thoughts and images that occupy most of a person’s waking hours, these may be unbidden and apparently purposeless or simply fanciful thoughts, whether spontaneous or intentional
- Researchers have identified at least three ways in which individuals’ daydreaming styles differ: positive-constructive daydreaming, guilty and fearful daydreaming, and poor attentional control
- These styles are posited to reflect the daydreamer’s overall tendencies toward positive emotion, negative emotion, and other personality traits
Daydream
A nonresidential facility where individuals with mental disorders receive a full range of treatment and support services during the day and return to their homes at night
- Specific service offerings vary across facilities but generally include psychological evaluation, individual and group psychotherapy, social and occupational rehabilitation, and somatic therapy
- Staff members are multidisciplinary, comprising psychiatrists, psychologists, social workers, vocational counselors, and others
Day Hospital
The cutting or removal of sensory neurons or axons that convey information toward a particular nervous system structure (eg; the olfactory bulb)
Deafferentation
The partial or complete loss of the sense of hearing
- The condition may be hereditary or acquired by injury or disease
- The major kinds are conduction deafness, due to a disruption in sound vibrations before they reach the nerve endings of the inner ear; and sensorineural deafness, caused by a failure of the nerves or brain centers associated with the sense of hearing to transmit or interpret properly the impulses from the inner ear
Deafness
Learning activities or programs designed to educate people about death, dying, coping with grief, and the various emotional effects of bereavement
- It is typically provided by certified thanatologists from a wide array of mental and medical health personnel, educators, clergy, and volunteers
Death Education
In psychoanalytic theory, a drive whose aim is the reduction psychical tension to the lowest possible point, that is, death
- It is first directed inward as a self destructive tendency and is later turned outward in the form of the aggressive instinct
- In the Dual Instinct Theory of Austrian psychiatrist Sigmund Freud (1856 - 1939), the death instinct, or Thanatos, stands opposed to the life instinct, or Eros, and is believed to underlie such behaviors as aggressiveness, sadism, and masochism
Death Instinct
The process of giving participants in a completed research project a fuller explanation of the study in which they participated than was possible before or during the research
Debriefing
A theory of forgetting stating that learned material leaves in the brain a trace or impression that autonomously recedes and disappears unless the material is practiced and used
Decay Theory
A decrease in speed of movement or rate of change
Deceleration
In Piagetian Theory, the gradual progression of a child away from egocentrism toward a reality shared with others
- It includes understanding how others perceive the world, knowing in what ways one’s own perceptions differ, and recognizing that people have motivations and feelings different from one’s own
- It can also be extended to the ability to consider many aspects of a situation, problem, or object, as reflected, for example, in the child’s grasp of the concept of conservation
Decentration
Any distortion of fact or withholding of fact with the purpose of misleading others
- For example, a researcher who has not disclosed the true purpose of an experiment to a participant has engaged in deception, as has an animal that has given a false alarm call that disperses competitors and thus allows him or her to gain more good
Deception
(Symbol: dB)
A logarithmic unit used to express the ratio of acoustic or electric power (intensity)
- An increase of 1 bel is a 10 fold increase in intensity; a decibel is one tenth of a bel and is the more commonly used unit, partly because a 1-dB change in intensity is just detectable (approximately and under laboratory conditions)
Decibel
The cognitive process of choosing between two or more alternatives
- Psychologists have adopted two converging strategies to understand decision making: (a) statistical analysis of multiple decisions involving complex tasks and (b) experimental manipulation of simple decisions, looking at elements that recur within these decisions
Decision Making
In hypothesis testing, the formal statement of the set of values of the test statistic that will lead to rejection of the null hypothesis
Decision Rule
A broad class of theories in the quantitative, social, and behavioral sciences that aim to explain the decision making process and identify optimal ways of arriving at decisions (eg; under conditions of uncertainty) in such a way that prespecified criteria are met
Decision Theory
Memory that can be consciously recalled in response to a request to remember
- In some theories, it includes episodic memory and semantic memory
Declarative Memory
In Information Theory, the process in which a receiver (eg; the brain or a device, such as a cell phone) translates signals (sounds, writing, gestures, electrical impulses) into meaningful messages
Decoding
A breakdown in an individual’s defense mechanisms, resulting in progressive loss of normal functioning or worsening of psychiatric symptoms
Decompensation
A technique in behavior therapy in which learned responses, such as phobias, are “unlearned” (deconditioned)
- For example, a person with a phobic reaction to flying might be deconditioned initially by practicing going to the airport when not actually taking a flight and using breathing techniques to control anxiety
Deconditioning
Surgical removal of the outer layer (cortex) of an anatomical structure, especially the outer layer of the cerebrum of the brain (ie; the cerebral cortex)
Decortication
The processes, intentional or unintentional, by which traditional cultural beliefs or practices are suppressed or otherwise eliminated as a result of contact with a different, dominant culture
Deculturation
- A conclusion derived from formal premises by a valid process of deductive reasoning
- The process of deductive reasoning itself
Deduction
The form of logical reasoning in which a conclusion is shown to follow necessarily from a sequence of premises, the first of which stands for a self evident truth or agreed upon data
- In the empirical sciences, it underlies the process of deriving predictions from general laws or theories
Deductive Reasoning
A form of acquired dyslexia characterized by semantic errors (eg; reading parrot as canary), difficulties in reading abstract words (eg; idea, usual) and function words (eg; the, and) and the inability to read pronounceable nonwords
Deep Dyslexia
Cognitive processing of a stimulus that focuses on its meaningful properties rather than its perceptual characteristics
- It is considered that processing at this semantic level, which usually involves a degree of elaboration, produces stronger, longer lasting memories than shallow processing
Deep Processing
In transformational generative grammar, an abstract base form of a sentence in which the logical and grammatical relations between the constituents are made explicit
- This generates the surface structure of a sentence through transformations, such as changes in word order or addition or deletion of elements
Deep Structure
A laboratory memory task used to study false recall
- it is based on the report in 1959 that, after presentation of a list of related words (eg; snore, rest, dream, awake), participants mistakenly recalled an unpresented but strongly associated item (eg; sleep)
- Following renewed research into the technique, it is now generally referred to as the Deese - Roediger - McDermott Paradigm [James Deese (1921-1999), U.S. Psychologist; Henry L. Roediger III (1947 - ), and Kathleen B. McDermott (1968 - ), U.S. Cognitive psychologists]
Deese Paradigm
In classical psychoanalytic theory, an unconscious reaction pattern employed by the ego to protect itself from the anxiety that arises from psychic conflict
- Such mechanisms range from mature to immature, depending on how much they distort reality
- In more recent psychological theories, these are seen as normal means of coping with everyday problems, but excessive use of any one, or the use of immature defenses (eg; displacement or repression), is still considered pathological
Defense Mechanism
A bias or error in attributing cause for some event such that a perceived threat to oneself is minimized
- For example, people might blame an automobile accident on the driver’s mistake rather than on a chance occurrence because this attribution lessens their perception that they themselves could be victimized by Chance
Defensive Attribution
Imitation of an act minutes, hours, or days after viewing the behavior
- Recent research indicates that deferred imitation of simple tasks can be observed in infants late in their 1st year
Deferred Imitation
In the humanistic psychology of U.S. psychologist Abraham Maslow (1908-1970), the type of motivation operating on the lower four levels of his hierarchy of needs
- It is characterized by the striving to correct a deficit that may be physiological or psychological in nature
Deficiency Motivation
Deterioration or decline of organs or tissues, especially of neural tissue, to a less functional form
Degeneration
In neurophysiology, the process by which neurotransmitter molecules are broken down into inactive metabolites
Degradation
(Symbol: df; v)
The number of elements that are free to vary in a statistical calculation, or the number of scores minus the number of mathematical restrictions
- For example, if four individuals have a mean IQ of 100, then there are three degrees of freedom, because knowing three of the IQs determines the fourth IQ
Degrees of Freedom
Any process or practice that is thought to reduce human beings to the level of nonhuman animals or mechanisms, especially by denying them autonomy, individuality, and a sense of dignity
Dehumanization
An experiential state characterized by loss of self awareness, altered perceptions, and a reduction of inner restraints that results in the performance of unusual, atypical behavior
- It can be caused by a number of factors, such as a sense of anonymity or of submersion in a group
Deindividuation
The joint process of moving people with developmental or psychiatric disabilities from structured institutional facilities to their home communities and developing comprehensive community based residential, day, vocational, clinical, and supportive services to address their needs
Deinstitutionalization
The feeling that a new event has already been experienced or that the same scene has been witnessed before [French: “already seen”]
Déjà vu
In Pavlovian conditioning, a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus is presented, and remains present, for a fixed period (the delay) before the unconditioned stimulus is introduced
Delay Conditioning
A procedure in which the participant is shown initially one stimulus as a sample (the study phase) and subsequently, after a variable interval, a pair of stimuli (the test phase), the task being to choose the stimulus in the test phase that matches the sample presented in the study phase
- In Delayed Nonmatching to Sample, the participant must choose the stimulus that was not presented in the study phase
Delayed Matching to Sample
A response that occurs some time after its discriminative stimulus has been removed
- The most common delayed response task for nonhuman animals is one in which the animal is required to recall the location of a reward after a delay period has elapsed
Delayed Response
Behavior violating social rules or conventions
- The term is often used to denote the misbehavior of children or adolescents
Delinquency
A state of disturbed consciousness in which attention cannot be sustained, the environment is mispercieved, and the stream of thought is disordered
- The individual may experience such symptoms as disorientation, memory impairment, disturbance in language, hallucinations, illusions, and MIs interpretation of sounds or sights
- It may be caused by a variety of conditions, including infections, cerebral tumors, substance intoxication and withdrawal, head trauma, and seizures
Delirium
A potentially fatal alcohol withdrawal syndrome involving extreme agitation and anxiety, fearfulness, paranoia, visual and tactile hallucinations, tremors, sweating, and increased heart rate, body temperature, and blood pressure
Delirium Tremens (DTs)
The lowest frequency brain have recorded in electroencephalography
- They are large, regular shaped waves that have a frequency of 1-3 Hz
- They are associated with deep, often dreamless, sleep
Delta Wave
An improbable, often highly personal, idea or belief system, not endorsed by one’s culture or subculture, that is maintained with conviction in spite of irrationality or evidence to the contrary
- Common types include delusions of grandeur, delusions of persecution, and delusions of reference
Delusion
Any one of a group of psychotic disorders with the essential feature of one or more delusions regarding situations that could conceivably occur in real life (eg; being followed, poisoned, infected, deceived by one’s government, ect…)
Delusional Disorder
The false attribution to the self of great ability, knowledge, importance or worth, identity, prestige, power, accomplishment, or the like
Delusion of Grandeur
The false conviction that others are threatening or conspiring against one
Delusion of Persecution
The false conviction of a person that the actions of others and events occurring in the external world have some special meaning or significance (typically negative) to him or her
Delusion of Reference
In an experiment or research project, cues that may influence or bias participants’ behavior, for example, by suggesting the outcome or response that the experimenter expects or desires
Demand Characteristics
A generalized, pervasive deterioration of cognitive functions, such as memory, language, and executive functions, due to any of various causes but commonly including Alzheimer’s disease, Pick’s disease, and cerebrovascular disease
- The loss of intellectual abilities is severe enough to interfere with an individual’s daily functioning and social and occupational activity
- When occurring after the age of 65 it is termed senile dementia and when appearing before 65 it is called presenile dementia
- However, it should not be confused with age associated memory impairment, which has a much less deleterious impact on day to day functioning
Dementia
The original, now obsolete, name for schizophrenia, first used in 1896 by German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin (1856 - 1926) and reflecting the belief that the symptoms of the disorder arose in addresence or before and involved incurable degeneration
- Swiss psychiatrist Eugen Bleuler (1857 - 1939) questioned both of these views and in 1911 renamed the disorder schizophrenia
Dementia Praecox
The statistical study of human populations in regard to various factors and characteristics, including geographical distribution, sex and age distribution, size, structure, and growth trends
Demography
A branching, threadlike extension of the cell body that increases the receptive surface of a neuron
Dendrite
A mushroom shaped outgrowth along the dendrite of a neuron, which forms a synapse with the axon terminals of neighboring neurons
Dendritic Spine
A defense mechanism in which unpleasant thoughts, feelings, wishes, or events are ignored or excluded from conscious awareness
- It may take such forms as refusal to acknowledge the reality of a terminal illness, a financial problem, an addiction, or a partner’s infidelity
- It is an unconscious process that functions to resolve emotional conflict or reduce anxiety
Denial
The objective or literal meaning of a word or phrase as opposed to its connotative meaning, which includes the various ideas and emotions that it suggests within a particular culture
- So, for example, the word father denotes “male parent” but may connote a range of ideas involving protection, authority, and love
Denotative Meaning
A measure of the amount of physical space per individual
- High density can produce crowding, a psychological state of needing more space
- Interior indices of density (eg; people per room) are consistently related to negative psychological consequences, whereas external indices (eg; people per square mile) are not
Density
A strip of gray matter that connects the hippocampus with the entorhinal cortex
Dentate Gyrus
- A state in which assistance from others is intuitively expected or actively sought for emotional or financial support, protection, security, or daily care
- The dependent person leans on others for guidance, decision making, and nurturance
- Whereas some degree of dependence is natural in interpersonal relations, excessive, inappropriate, or misdirected reliance on others is often a focus of psychological treatment - See substance dependence
- In operant conditioning, a causal relation between a response and a consequence, which results in a contingency
Dependence
The percentage of a population that is not working for pay: a measure of the portion of a population that is composed of people who are too young to work or who have retired
- It is often defined as the number of individuals aged below 15 or above 64 divided by the number of individuals aged 15 to 64
Dependency Ratio
A personality disorder manifested in a long term pattern of passively allowing others to take responsibility for major areas of life and of subordinating personal needs to the needs of others
Dependent Personality Disorder
The “outcome” variable in an experiment that is observed to occur or change after the occurrence or variation of the independent variable
Dependent Variable (DV)
A state of mind in which the self appears unreal
- Individuals feel estranged from themselves and usually from the external world, and thoughts and experiences have a distant, dreamlike character
Depersonalization
A dissociative disorder characterized by one or more episodes of depersonalization severe enough to impair social and occupational functioning
- Onset of depersonalization is rapid and accompanied by a feeling that one’s extremities are changed in size and in some cases, a feeling that the external world is unreal (derealization)
Depersonalization Disorder
A reduction in the electric potential across the plasma membrane of a cell, especially a neuron, such that the inner surface of the membrane becomes less negative in relation to the outer surface
- It occurs when the membrane is stimulated and sodium ions (Na+) flow into the cell
- If the stimulus intensity exceeds the excitatory threshold of the neuron an action potential is created and a nerve impulse propagated
Depolarization
Any agent that diminishes or retards any function or activity of a body system or organ, especially a central nervous system depressant
Depressant
- A fluctuation in normal mood ranging from unhappiness and discontent to an extreme feeling of sadness, pessimism, and despondency
- In psychiatry, any of the depressive disorders
Depression
Any of the mood disorders that typically have sadness as one of their symptoms, such as dysthymic disorder and major depressive disorder
Depressive Disorder
A recently classified and still controversial personality disorder characterized by glumness, pessimism, a lack of joy, the inability to experience pleasure, and a low sense of self worth and self esteem
Depressive Personality Disorder
The removal, denial, or unavailability of something needed or desired
- In conditioning, for example, this refers to a reduction of access to or intake of a reinforcer
Deprivation
Any of a variety of means used to inform the visual system about the depth of a target or its distance from the observer
- Monocular cues require only one eye whereas binocular cues require integration of information from the two eyes
Depth Cue
An interview designed to reveal deep seated feelings, attitudes, opinions, and motives by encouraging the individual to express himself or herself freely without fear of disapproval or concern about the interviewer’s reactions
- Such interviews may be conducted, for example, in counseling and as part of qualitative market research
- They tend to be relatively lengthy, unstructured, one on one conversations
Depth Interview
The theory that the strength of memory is dependent on the degree of cognitive processing the material receives
- Depth has been defined variously as elaboration, amount of cognitive effort expended, and the distinctiveness of the memory trace formed
- This theory is an expanded empirical investigation of the levels of processing model of memory
Depth of Processing Hypothesis
Awareness of three dimensionality, solidity, and the distance between the observer and the object
- It is achieved through such cues as visual accommodation, binocular disparity, and convergence
Depth Perception
A general approach to psychology and psychotherapy that focuses on unconscious mental processes as the source of emotional disturbance and symptoms, as well as personality, attitudes, creativity, and lifestyle
- A typical example is classical psychoanalysis, but others include the analytic psychology of Swiss psychiatrist and psychoanalyst Carl Jung (1875 - 1961) and the individual psychology of Austrian psychiatrist Alfred Adler (1870-1937)
Depth Psychology
Any form of psychotherapy, brief or extended, that involves identifying and working through unconscious conflicts and experiences that underlie and interfere with behavior and adjustment
Depth Therapy
A state characterized by a series of unreality; that is, an alteration in the perception of external reality so that it seems strange or unreal (“this can’t be happening”), often due to trauma or stress
- It may also occur as a feature of schizophrenia or of certain dissociative disorders
Derealization
An area of skin that is innervated primarily by fibers from the dorsal root of a particular spinal nerve
Dermatome
A numerical index used to describe (summarize) a particular feature of the data, such as a mean of standard deviation
Descriptive Statistic
A research method in which the primary soci is to reveal patterns and illustrate connections in the phenomena under investigation, without manipulating variables or seeking to establish cause and effect
- For example, a survey undertaken to ascertain the political party preferences of a group of voters would be a descriptive study because it is intended simply to identify attitudes rather than systematically analyze influencing factors
Descriptive Study
A reduction in emotional or physical reactivity to stimuli that is achieved by such means as gaining insight into its nature or origin or the use of deconditioning techniques
Desensitization
The philosophical position that any events, physical or mental, are the necessary results of antecedent causes or other entities or forces
- Determinism, which requires that both the past and the future are fixed, manifests itself in psychology as the position that all human behaviors result from specific efficient causal antecedents, such as biological structures or processes, environmental conditions, or past experience
- The relationships between these antecedents and the behaviors they produce can be described by generalizations much like the laws that describe regularities in nature
- Determinism contrasts with belief in free will, which implies that individuals can choose to act in some ways independent of antecedent events and conditions
- Those who advocate free will positions often adopt a position of soft determinism, which holds that free will and responsibility are compatible with determinism
- Others held that free will is illusory, a position known as hard determinism
- Of contemporary psychological theories, behaviorism takes most clearly a hard determinist position
Determinism
A therapeutic procedure, popularly known as detox, that reduces or eliminates toxic substances in the body, particularly as related to intoxication by or withdrawal from drugs or alcohol
Detoxification
The progressive series of changes in structure, function, and behavior patterns that occur over the life span of a human being or other organism
Development
A motor skills disorder characterized by performance in activities that require motor coordination substantially below that expected given the child’s chronological age and measured intelligence
- Significant impairment of academic performance or daily living activities is also observed
- However, the difficulties are not due to mental retardation or a physical deficit
Developmental Coordination Disorder
A developmental level or status that is attributable to a cognitive or physical impairment, or both, originating before the age of 22
- Such an impairment is likely to continue indefinitely and results in substantial functional or adaptive limitations
- Examples include mental retardation, artistic disorder, and learning disorders
Developmental Disability
The typical skills and expected level of achievement associated with a particular stage of development
Developmental Norm
The branch of psychology that studies the changes - physical, mental, and behavioral - that occur from conception to old age
Developmental Psychology
The scientific study of the origins and progression of psychological disorders as related to the typical processes of human growth and maturation
- Central to this field is the belief that studying departures from developmental norms will enhance understanding of those norms, which will in turn enhance the conceptualization and treatment of mental illness
Developmental Psychopathology
The view that development is the result of bidirectional interaction between all levels of biological and experiential variables, from the genetic through the cultural
Developmental Systems Approach
Any of the fundamental physical, social, intellectual, and emotional achievements and abilities that must be acquired at each stage of life for normal and healthy development
Developmental Task
Any theory based on the continuity of human development and the importance of early experiences in shaping the personality
- Examples are the psychoanalytic theory of psychosexual development, Erikson’s eight stages of development, learning theories that stress early conditioning, and role theories that focus on the gradual acquisition of different roles in life
Developmental Theory
A significant departure or difference
- This conceptually broad term has a variety of applications in psychology and related fields but most commonly refers to behavior that is significantly different from the accepted standard or norm, or to the arithmetical difference between one of a set of values and some fixed amount, generally the mean of the set or the value predicted by a model
Deviation
A raw score subtracted from the mean, indicating the value of the score relative to the mean
Deviation Score
- The process of identifying and determining the nature of a disease or disorder by its signs and symptoms, through the use of assessment techniques (eg; tests and examinations) and other available evidence
- The classification of individuals on the basis of a disease, disorder, abnormality, or set of characteristics
- Psychological diagnoses have been codified for professional use, notably in the DSM -IV-TR
Diagnosis (Dx)
Any examination or assessment measure that may help reveal the nature and source of an individual’s physical, mental, or behavioral problems or abnormalities
Diagnostic Test
A variety of a language that is associated with a particular geographical region, social class, or ethnic group and has its own characteristic words, grammatical forms, and pronunciation
- Dialects of a language are generally mutually intelligible
Dialect
A flexible, stage based therapy that combines principles of behavior therapy, cognitive behavior therapy, and mindfulness
- This concurrently promotes acceptance and change especially with difficult to treat patients
Dialectical Behavior Therapy
A technique for compiling detailed data about an individual who is being observed or studied by having the individual record his or her daily behavior and activities
Diary Method
A loss or deficiency of function in brain regions surrounding or connected to an area of localize damage
Diaschisis
A susceptibility to acquiring (not inheriting) certain diseases or disorders
Diathesis
The theory that mental and physical disorders develop from a predisposition for that illness (diathesis) combined with stressful conditions that play a precipitating or facilitating role
Diathesis - Stress Model
The process of receiving different auditory messages presented simultaneously to each ear
- Listeners experience two streams of sound, each localized at the ear to which it is presented, and are able to focus on the message from one ear while ignoring the message from the other ear
Dichotic Listening
The tendency to think in terms of bipolar opposites, that is, in terms of the best and worst, without accepting the possibilities that lie between these two extremes
- This is sometimes thought to be a risk factor for major depressive disorder
Dichotomous Thinking
A variable that can have only two values to designate membership in one of two possible categories, for example, female versus male
Dichotomous Variable
Partial color blindness in which the eye contains only two types of cone photopigment instead of the typical three: lack of the third pigment leads to confusion between certain colors
- Red green color blindness is the most common, whereas the blue green variety is relatively rare
- Another type, yellow blue, has been proposed but its existence has yet to be firmly established
Dichromatism
The posterior part of the forebrain that includes the thalamus, epithalanus, and hypothalamus
Diencephalon
An index of dissimilarity or change over time, reflecting the degree of discrepancy in the measurement of a construct or attribute on two separate occasions
Difference Score
The smallest difference between two stimuli that can be consistently and accurately detected on 50% of trials
- Also called Difference Limen (DL); Just Noticeable Difference (JND)
Difference Threshold
- The process of determining which of two or more diseases or disorders with overlapping symptoms a particular patient has
- The distinction between two or more similar conditions by identifying critical symptoms present in one but not the other
Differential Diagnosis
The branch of psychology that studies the nature, magnitude, causes, and consequences of psychological differences between individuals and groups, as well as the methods for assessing these differences
Differential Psychology
- Sensory discrimination of differences among stimuli
- For example, wines that at first taste identical may, with experience, be readily distinguishable - A conditioning process in which a limited range of behavior types is achieved through selective reinforcement of only some forms of behavior
- In embryology, the process whereby cells of a developing embryo undergo the changes necessary to become specialized in structure and function
Differentiation
The lessening of responsibility often experienced by individuals in groups and social collectives
- This has been proposed as one reason for the bystander effect; in groups the obligation to intervene is shared by all onlookers rather than focused on any specific individual
Diffusion of Responsibility
The number of random digits from a series that a person can recall following a single auditory presentation
- A span of 5-9 digits is considered typical for an adult
Digit Span
The situation in which two varieties of a language coexist and have distinct social functions within a community; these are usually characterized by high (H) and low (L) uses, H being associated with formality and literacy, and L with everyday colloquial usage
Diglossia
The existence among members of the same species of two distinct forms that differ in one or more characteristics, such as size, shape, or color
Dimorphism
Denoting or possessing the normal number of chromosomes, which in humans is 46: 22 homologous pairs of autosomes plus the male or female set of XY or XX sex chromosomes
Diploid
A prediction regarding the direction in which one experimental group will differ from another
Directional Hypothesis
An approach to psychotherapy in which the therapeutic process is directed along lines considered relevant by the therapist
- It is based on the assumption that the professional training and experience of the therapist equip him or her to manage the therapeutic process and to guide the client’s behavior
- Therapy is considered to progress along primarily intellectual lines in contrast to the approaches of psychodynamic psychotherapy, which emphasizes unconscious motivation and affective dynamics
Directive Therapy
A lasting physical or mental impairment that significantly interferes with an individual’s ability to function in one or more central life activities, such as self care, ambulation, communication, social interaction, sexual expression, or employment
- For example, an individual who cannot see has visual disability
Disability
A measure of the impact of disease or injury on the length and quality of a person’s life
- It takes into account the potential loss of years due to premature mortality and the value of years lived with disability
- One DALY represents one lost year of “healthy” life
Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALYs)
The markedly greater competitiveness of intergroup interactions relative to the competitiveness of interactions involving individuals
Discontinuity Effect
The viewpoint that emphasizes the role of sudden insight and perceptual reorganization in successful discrimination learning and problem solving
- According to this view, a correct answer is only recognized when its relation to the issue as a whole is discovered
Discontinuity Hypothesis
In twin studies, dissimilarity between a pair of twins with respect to a particular trait or disease
Discordance
The areas of written, spoken, and signed communication, whether formal (debate) or informal (conversation)
- The term is most often used in linguistics, where discourse analysts focus on both the study of language (sentences, speech acts, and lexicons) as well as the rhetoric, meanings, and strategies that underlie social interactions
Discourse
The study of linguistic structures that extend beyond the single sentence, such as conversations, narratives, or written arguments
- This is particularly concerned with the ways in which a sequence of two or more sentences can produce meanings that are different from or additional to any found in the sentences considered separately
- The norms and expectations that govern conversation are a major concern of this, as is the structure of conversational language generally
Discourse Analysis
Learning that occurs through solving problems, by formulating and testing hypotheses, and in actual experience and manipulation in attempting solutions
Discovery Learning
A variable that takes on only a relatively small number of distinct values
Discrete Variable
A multivariate statistical method that combines information from a set of predictor variables in order to allow maximal discrimination among a set of predefined groups
Discriminate Analysis
Any of a range of statistical techniques to situate an item that could belong to any of two or more variables in the correct set, with minimal probability of error
Discriminant Function
- The ability to distinguish between stimuli or objects that differ quantitatively or qualitatively from one another
- In conditioning, this meaning is extended to include as well the ability to respond in different ways in the presence of such different stimuli - Differential treatment of the members of different ethnic, religious, national, or other groups
- It is usually the behavioral manifestation of prejudice and therefore involves negative, hostile, and injurious treatment of the members of rejected groups
Discrimination
A procedure in which an operant response is reinforced in the presence of a particular stimulus but not in the absence of that stimulus
- For example, a rat’s lever press response might be reinforced when a stimulus light is on but not when the light is off
- This rat will eventually learn to press the lever only when the light is on
Discrimination Training
( Symbol: SD)
In operant conditioning, a stimulus that increases the probability of a response because of a previous history of differential reinforcement in the presence of that stimulus
- For example, is a pigeon’s key pecks are reinforced when the key is illuminated red, but not when the key is green, the red stimulus will come to serve as an SD and the pigeon will learn to peck only when the key is red
Discriminative Stimulus
Any of several theories concerning the causes and course of a pathological condition or process
Disease Model
Grief that society limits, does not expect, or may not allow a person to express
- Examples include the grief of parents for stillborn babies and of teachers for the death of students
- It may isolate the bereaved individual from others and thus impede recovery
Disenfranchised Grief
The act of withdrawing from an attachment or relationship or, more generally, from an unpleasant situation
Disengagement
A theory proposing that old age involves a gradual withdrawal of the individual from society and of society from the individual
- According to this theory, those happiest in old age have turned their attention inward toward the self and away from involvement in the outside world
- Empirical research has shown, however, that this mutual withdrawal is not an inevitable component of old age and that a continuity theory of aging is most likely, in which older people are happiest when they are able to maintain their preferred level of social involvement
Disengagement Theory
A strong aversion, for example, to the taste, smell, or touch of something deemed revolting, or toward a person or behavior deemed morally repugnant
Disgust
The reappearance or enhancement of a habituated response (ie; one that has been weakened following repeated exposure to the evoking stimulus) due to the presentation of a new stimulus
- It is a useful method for investigating perception in nonverbal individuals or animals
Dishabituation
Diminution or loss of the normal control exerted by the cerebral cortex, resulting in poorly controlled or poorly restrained emotions or actions
Disinhibition
A breakup or severe disorganization of some structure or system of functioning
Disintegration
A group task or projective, such as solving a complex problem, that is completed when a single solution, decision, or group member’s recommendation is adopted by the group
- This means that the group’s performance tends to be determined by the most skilled member
Disjunctive Task
An adult attachment style that combines a positive internal working model of attachment of oneself, characterized by a view of oneself as competent and worthy of love, and a negative internal working model of attachment of others, characterized by one’s view that others are untrustworthy or undependable
- Individuals with this are presumed to discount the importance of close relationships and to maintain rigid self sufficiency
Dismissive Attachment
A learning disorder in which writing skills are substantially below those expected, given the person’s chronological age, formal education experience, and measured intelligence
- The writing difficulties significantly interfere with academic achievement and activities of daily living that require writing skills
Disorder of Written Expression
Loss or disruption of orderly or systematic structure or functioning
Disorganization
A form of insecure attachment in which infants show no coherent or consistent behavior during separation from and reunion with their parent
Disorganized Attachment
A subtype of schizophrenia characterized primarily by random and fragmented speech and behavior and by flat or inappropriate affect
- Also called hebephrenia
Disorganized Schizophrenia
A state of impaired ability to identify oneself or to locate oneself in relation to time, place, or other aspects of one’s surroundings
- Long term disorientation can be characteristic of disorders; temporary disorientation can be caused by alcohol or drugs or can occur in situations of acute stress
Disorientation
The degree to which a batch of scores deviate from the mean
Dispersion
The transfer of feelings or behavior from their original object to another person or thing
- In psychoanalytic theory, it is considered to be a defense mechanism in which the individual discharges tensions associated with, for example, hostility and fear by taking them out on a neutral, nonthreatening or less threatening target
- Thus, an angry child might hurt a sibling instead of attacking the father; a frustrated employee might criticize his or her spouse instead of the boss; or a person who fears his or her own hostile impulses might transfer that fear to knives, guns, or other objects that might be used as a weapon
Displacement
More or less stereotyped actions (ie; actions repeated with little variation) that bring about a response in another individual: an integral part of animal communication
- This behavior may be verbal or nonverbal, usually involving stimulation of the visual or auditory senses
- It may include body language that would convey a message of courtship to a member of the opposite sex (eg; a show of plumage or color) or a suggestion that would be interpreted by an opponent as threatening (eg; bared teeth or missing noises)
Display
A socially learned standard that regulates the expression of emotion
- They vary from culture to culture; for example, the expression of anger may be considered appropriate in some cultures but not in others
Display Rule
A recurrent behavioral or affective tendency that distinguishes an individual from others
Disposition
The ascription of one’s own or another’s actions, an event, or an outcome to internal or psychological causes specific to the person concerned, such as moods, attitudes, decisions and judgements, abilities, or effort
- Also called Internal Attribution
Dispositional Attribution
An unconscious defense mechanism in which conflicting impulses are kept apart or threatening ideas and feelings are separated from the rest of the psyche
Dissociation
A dissociative disorder characterized by failure to recall important information about one’s personal experiences, usually of a traumatic or stressful nature, that is too extensive to be explained by normal forgetfulness
- Recovery of memory often occurs spontaneously within a few hours and is usually connected with removal from the traumatic circumstances with which the amnesia was associated
Dissociative Amnesia
Any of a group of disorders characterized by a sudden, gradual, transient, or chronic disruption in the normal integrative functions of consciousness, memory, or perception of the environment
- Such disruption may last for minutes or years, depending on the type of disorder
- Included in this category are Dissociative Amnesia, Dissociative Fugue, Dissociative Identity Disorder, and Depersonalization Disorder
Dissociative Disorder
A dissociative disorder in which the individual suddenly and unexpectedly travels away from home or a customary place of daily activities and is unable to recall some or all of his or her past
- Symptoms also include either confusion about personal identity or assumption of a new identity
- The fugue state can last from hours to months, and there may be no memory of travel once the individual is brought back to the prefugue state
Dissociative Fugue
A dissociative disorder characterized by the presence in one individual of two or more distinct identities or personality states that each recurrently take control of the individual’s behavior
- It is typically associated with severe physical and sexual abuse, especially during childhood
- Research suggests that there may be a hereditary component
Dissociative Identity Disorder
- Situated or directed toward the periphery of the body or toward the end of a limb
- Remote from or mostly distantly related to the point of reference or origin
Distal
In perception, the actual object in the environment that stimulates or acts on a sense organ
Distal Stimulus
Any of the auditory or visual cues that enable an individual to judge the distance of the source of a stimulus
- Auditory type include intensity of familiar sounds (eg; voices), intensity differences between the ears, and changes in spectral content
- In vision, these include the size of familiar objects and accommodation
Distance Cue
The negative stress response, involving excessive levels of stimulation: a type of stress that results from being overwhelmed by demands, losses, or perceived threats
- It has a detrimental effect by generating physical and psychological maladaptation and posing serious health risks for individuals
- This generally is the intended meaning of the word stress
Distress
A model for intelligent problem solving in which either the input information comes from separated and independent sources or the processing of this input information takes place across autonomous computational devices
Distributed Cognition
A learning procedure in which practice periods for a particular activity or to improve recall of specific material are separated by regular, lengthy rest periods or periods of practicing different activities or studying other material
- In many learning situations, this is found to be more effective than massed practice
Distributed Practice
The relation between the values that a variable may take and the relative number of cases taking on each value
- It may be simply an empirical description of that relationship or a mathematical (probabilistic) specification of the relationship
Distribution
A test of statistical significance that makes relatively few, if any, assumptions about the underlying distribution of scores
Distribution Free Test
The belief that rules can be changed and punishments and rewards distributed according to relative standards, specifically according to equality and equity
- It makes allowances for subjective considerations, personal circumstances, and motive
Distributive Justice
A drug used as an aversive agent in managing alcohol abuse or dependence
- It inhibits the activity of acetaldehyde dehydrogenase, an enzyme responsible for the metabolism of alcohol (ethanol) in the liver
- Consumption of alcohol following administration of this results in accumulation of acetaldehyde, a toxic metabolic product of ethanol, with such unpleasant effects as nausea, vomiting, sweating, headache, a fast heart rate, and palpitations
- U.S. trade name: Antabuse
Disulfiram
- Daily; that is, recurring every 24 hours
- Occurring or active during daylight hours
Diurnal
The rotation of the two eyes outward when shifting fixation from a nearby target object to one that is far away
Divergence
Creative thinking in which an individual solves a problem or reaches a decision using strategies that deviate from commonly used or previously taught strategies
- This term is often used synonymously with lateral thinking
Divergent Thinking
The wide range of variation of living organisms in an ecosystem
- When describing people and population groups, this can include such factors as age, gender, sexual orientation, race, ethnicity, and religion, as well as education, livelihood, and marital status
- Many organizations have diversity training programs to help employees appreciate and deal effectively with cultural and other differences among people
Diversity
Attention to two or more channels of information at the some time, so that two or more tasks may be performed concurrently
- It can occur through just one sense (eg; hearing), or two or more senses (eg; hearing and vision) may be engaged in the process
Divided Attention
Twins, of the same or different sexes, that have developed from two separate ova fertilized by two separate sperm
- DZ twins are genetically as much alike as ordinary full siblings born separately
- On average, DZ twins are approximately half as genetically similar to one another as monozygotic twins
Dizygotic Twins
Deoxyribonucleic acid: One of the two types of nucleic acid found in living organisms, which is the principle carrier of genetic information in chromosomes
- Certain segments of these molecules constitute the organism’s genes, with each gene specifying the manufacture of a particular protein or ribosome
- Structurally, it consists of two intertwined, helically coiled strands of nucleotides - the double helix
- The nucleotides each contain one of four bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine, or thymine
- Each base forms hydrogen bonds with the adjacent base on the other, sister strand, producing consecutive base pairs arranged rather like the “rungs” on a helical ladder
- Because of it’s ability to conserve its base sequence when replicating, the genetic instructions it carries are also conserved
DNA
A personality trait characterized by the tendency to act in a blindly certain, assertive, and authoritative manner in accord with a strongly held set of beliefs that are presumed to be resistant to change
- These belief systems contain elements that are isolated from one another and thus may contradict one another
- These type of people tend to be intolerant of those who hold different beliefs
Dogmatism
Any action by a person that causes physical harm to one or more members of his or her family unit
- For example, it can involve battering of one partner by another, violence against children by a parent, or violence against elders by younger family members
Domestic Violence
- The exercise of major influence or control over others
- In nonhuman animals, these ranks are often thought to be linear, with a clear ordering from most to least dominant, but may also be dependent (ie; based on kin or age relationships) or governed by coalitions in which some subordinate individuals can outrank more dominant ones by acting together - The tendency for one hemisphere of the brain to exert greater influence than the other over certain functions, such as language or handedness
- The two hemispheres contribute differently to many functions; researchers therefore use the term hemispheric laterialization in preference to dominance - In genetics, the ability of one allele to determine the phenotype of a heterozygous individual
Dominance
- In social psychology, a system of stable linear variations in prestige, status, and authority among group members
- It defines who gives orders and who carries them out - Any ordering of motives, needs, or other psychological or physical responses based on priority or importance
- An example is Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Dominance Hiearchy
The version of a gene whose effects are manifest in preference to another version of the same gene (the recessive allele) when both are present in the same cell
- Hence, the trait determined by this (the dominant trait) is apparent even when the allele is carried on only one of a pair of homologous chromosomes
Dominant Allele
A two step procedure for enhancing compliance in which an extreme initial request is presented immediately before the more moderate target request
- Rejection of the initial request makes people more likely to accept the target request than would have been the case if the latter had been presented on its own
Door in the Face Technique
3, 4 - dihydroxy - phenylalanine: an animo acid that is a precursor to dopamine and other catecholamines
Dopa
A catecholamine neurotransmitter that has an important role in motor behavior and is implicated in numerous mental conditions
- For example, destruction of the dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra is responsible for the symptoms of Parkinson’s disease (eg; rigidity, tremor), and blockade of the actions of dopamine in other brain regions accounts for the therapeutic activities of antischizophrenic drugs
- It is synthesized from the dietary amino acid tyrosine and may be further metabolized to form norepinephrine and epinephrine, respectively
Dopamine
The influential theory that schizophrenia is caused by an excess of dopamine in the brain, due either to an overproduction of dopamine or a deficiency of the enzyme needed to convert dopamine to norepinephrine (adrenaline)
- There is some supporting pharmacological and biochemical evidence for this hypothesis, and it is still widely discussed and promoted, particularly in a revised form that postulates the involvement in schizophrenia of both an increased mesolimbic and a decreased prefrontal dopaminergic activity
Dopamine Hypothesis
Responding to, releasing, or otherwise involving dopamine
- For example, this type of neuron is any neuron in the brain or other parts of the central nervous system for which dopamine serves as the principal neurotransmitter
- Three major tracts of dopamine containing neurons are classically described: the mesolimbic - mesocortical tract, in which excess dopamine activity is hypothesized to be associated with positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia; the nigrostriatal tract, which is involved in motor functions and Parkinson’s disease; and the tuberoinfundibular pathway, a local circuit in the hypothalamus that is involved in the regulation of the pituitary hormone prolactin
Dopaminergic
The apparent increase or decrease in wavelength or frequency observed when a source of electromagnetic radiation or sound approaches or recedes from the observer or listener, producing a change in hue or pitch
- The total Doppler effect may result from motion of both the observer or listener and the source [Christian Andreas Doppler (1803 - 1853), Austrian mathematician]
Doppler Effect
Denoting the hind region or the back surface of the body
- In reference to the latter, this term sometimes is used interchangeably with posterior
Dorsal
Any of various tracts of sensory nerve fibers that run through the white matter of the spinal cord on its dorsal (back) side
Dorsal Column
Either of the upper regions of the H shaped pattern formed by the gray matter in the central portion of the spinal cord
- These extend toward the dorsal roots and mainly serve sensory mechanisms
Dorsal Horn
Any of the spinal roots that convey sensory nerve fibers and enter the spinal cord on the back surface of each side
Dorsal Root
A series of specialized visual regions in the cerebral cortex of the brain that originate in the striate cortex (primary visual cortex) of the occipital lobe and project forward and upward into the parietal lobe
- Known informally as the “where” or “how” pathway, it is involved in processing object motion and location in space
Dorsal Stream
Located both dorsally (toward the back) and laterally (toward the side)
Dorsolateral
A region of the prefrontal cortex involved in working memory and attentional control
- Damage to this region in humans results in an inability to select task relevant information and to shift attention based on external cues
Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex
Oriented or directed from the back (dorsal) region of the body to the front (ventral) region
Dorsoventral
A principle relating the potency of a drug to the efficacy of that drug in affecting a target symptom or organ system
- Potency refers to the amount ot a drug necessary to produce the desired effect; efficacy refers to the drug’s ability to act at a larger receptor or organ to produce the desired effect
- Dose- response curves may be graded, suggesting a continuous relationship between dose and effect, or quantal, where the desired effect is an either- or phenomenon, such as prevention of arrhythmias
Dose - Response Relationship
A situation in which an individual receives contradictory messages from another person or from two different people
- For example, a parent may respond negatively when his or her child approaches or attempts to engage in affectionate behavior, but then, when the child turns away or tries to leave, reaches out to encourage the child to return
- This type of communication was once considered a causative factor in schizophrenia
Double Bind
A research process for demonstrating the action of two separable psychological or biological systems, such as differentiating between types of memory or the function of brain areas
- One experimental variable is found to affect one of the systems, whereas a second variable affects the other
- The differentiating variables may be task related, pharmacological, neurological, or individual differences
Double Dissociation
The hypocritical belief that a code of behavior is permissible for one group or individual but not for another
Double Standard
A disorder characterized by an extra chromosome 21 and by particular facial features and below average brain size and weight
- Affected individuals usually have mild to severe mental retardation, and muscular movements tend to be slow, clumsy, and uncoordinated
- Lifespan is reduced compared to the general population, and affected individuals typically show early onset of Alzheimer’s disease
- It is one of the most common organic causes of mental retardation [Described in 1866 by John Langdon Haydon Down (1828 - 1896), British physician]
Down Syndrome
(Symbol: d’)
A measure of an individual’s ability to detect signals; more specifically, a measure of sensitivity or discriminability derived from signal detection theory that is unaffected by response biases
- It is the difference (in standard deviation units) between the means of the noise and signal + noise distributions
- A value of d’ = 3 is close to perfect performance; a value of d’ = 0 is chance (“guessing”) performance
D Prime
A mental state that occurs in sleep and is characterized by a rich array of sensory, motor, emotional, and cognitive experiences
- These occur most often, but not exclusively, during periods of REM sleep
- They are characterized by (a) vivid imagery, especially visual imagery, and a strong sense of movement; (b) intense emotion, especially fear, elation, or anger; (c) delusional acceptance of the dream as a waking reality; and (d) discontinuity in time and space and incongruity of character and plot
- Despite the vivid intensity of dreams, it can be difficult to remember them to any extent unless promptly awakened from REM sleep, but even then much content cannot be accurately retrieved
- Diverse theories about the significance of dreams and the process of dream production have arisen from varied sources throughout history
- These range from the suggestion of Greek physician Hippocrates (c. 460 - c. 377 BCE) that dreams provide early evidence of disease, to the interpretation by Austrian psychiatrist Sigmund Freud (1856 - 1939) of dreams as a struggle in which the part of the mind representing social strictures (the superego) plays out a conflict with the sexual impulses (the libido) while the rational part of the mind (the ego) is at rest, and scientific study of dreaming as a neurocognitive process, a recent product of which is the activation - synthesis hypothesis
Dream
A technique in which the content of dreams is interpreted to reveal underlying motivations or symbolic meanings and representations (ie; latent content)
Dream Analysis
In psychoanalytic theory, the transformation of the latent content of a dream into the manifest content experienced by the dreamer
- This transformation is effected by such processes as symbolism and displacement
Dream Work
- A generalized state of readiness precipitating or motivating an activity or course of action
- It is hypothetical in nature, usually created by deprivation of a needed substance (eg; food), the presence of negative stimuli (eg; pain, cold), or the occurrence of negative events - In the psychoanalytic theory of Austrian psychiatrist Sigmund Freud (1856 - 1939), a concept used to understand the relationship between the psyche and the soma (mind and body); it is conceived as having a somatic source but creating a psychic effect
- Freud identified two separate drives as emerging from somatic sources: libido and aggression
Drive
A theory of learning in which the goal of motivated behavior is a reduction of a drive state
- It is assumed that all motivated behavior arises from drives, stemming from a disruption in homeostasis, and that responses that lead to reduction of those drives tend to be reinforced or strengthened
Drive - Reduction Theory
Any substance, other than food, that influences motor, sensory, cognitive, or other bodily processes
- They generally are administered for experimental, diagnostic, or treatment purposes but also tend to be used recreationally to achieve particular effects
Drug
The text revision of the fourth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, prepared by the American Psychiatric Association and published in 2000
- The classification presents descriptions of diagnostic categories without favoring any particular theory of etiology
- It is largely modeled on the International Classification of Diseases (9th edition, 1978), developed by the World Health Organization, but contains greater detail and recent changes, as well as a method of coding on different axes
DSM - IV -TR
The theory that linguistic input can be represented in memory in both verbal and visual formats
- Concrete words that readily call to mind a picture, such as table or horse, are remembered better than abstract words, such as honesty or conscience, which do not readily call to mind a picture, because the concrete words are stored in two codes rather than one
Dual Coding Theory
The position that reality consists of two separate substances, defined by French philosopher Rene Descartes (1596 - 1650) as thinking substance (mind) and extended substance (matter)
- In the context of the mind-body problem, this is the position that the mind and the body constitute two separate realms or substances
- Dualistic positions raise the question of how mind and body interact in thought and behavior
Dualism
The concept that memory is a two stage process, comprising short term memory, in which information is retained for a few seconds, and long term memory, which permits the retention of information for hours to many years
Dual Store Model of Memory
A restatement of the perseveration - consolidation hypothesis of memory formation specifying that short term memory is represented neurally by activity in reverberating circuits and that stabilization of these circuits leads to permanent synaptic change, reflecting the formation of long term memory
Dual Trace Hypothesis
A method of assigning numerical values (often 0 and 1) to a categorical variable in such a way that the variable reflects class membership
Dummy Variable Coding
A method for comparing al groups with a single contra group mean in such a way that the significance level for the set of comparisons is controlled at X (the criterion value) [Charles W. Dunnett (1921 - ), Canadian statistician]
Dunnett’s Multiple Comparison Test
A method for comparing the means of samples from k populations that is based on the Bonferroni Correction
Dunn’s Multiple Comparison Test
A condition of underdeveloped body structure due to a developmental detect, hormonal or nutritional deficiencies, or diseases
- Some forms, such as that due to thyroid hormone deficiency, are associated with mental retardation
Dwarfism
A pair of individuals in an interpersonal situation
Dyad (Diad)
The ongoing attempt to organize the clinical material elicited about a client’s behavior, traits, attitudes, and symptoms into a structure that helps the therapist understand the client and plan his or her treatment more effectively
Dynamic Formulation
A theory of psychology emphasizing causation and motivation in relation to behavior, specifically the stimulus - organism - response chain in which the stimulus - response relationship is regarded as the mechanism of behavior and the drives of the organism are the mediating variable
Dynamic Psychology
A theory that attempts to explain behavior and personality in terms of constantly changing, self organizing interactions among multiple organisms and environmental factors that operate on multiple timescales and multiple levels of analysis
Dynamic Systems Theory
The measurement of force expended or power, especially muscular effort or strength of humans or animals
- A dynamometer usually consists of a spring that can be compressed by the force applied
Dynamometry
Any of a group of motor speech disorders caused by muscular impairment originating in the central or peripheral nervous system
- Respiration, articulation, phonation, resonance, and prosody may be affected
- There are four main types: dyskinetic, spastic, peripheral, and mixed
Dysarthria
An impaired ability to perform simple arithmetic operations that results from a congenital deficit
- It is a developmental condition, whereas acalculia is acquired
Dyscalculia
A collection of symptoms that involve impaired executive control of actions, caused by damage to the frontal lobes of the brain
- Individuals have difficulty in initiating and switching actions and organizing behavior
Dysexecutive Syndrome
Any impairment, disturbance, or deficiency in behavior or operation
Dysfunction
A neurologically based disorder manifested as severe difficulties in reading, resulting from impairment in the ability to make connections between written letters and their sounds
- It can be either acquired (in which case it often is referred to as alexia) or developmental, is independent of intellectual ability, and is unrelated to disorders of speech and vision that may also be present
- Investigators have proposed various subtypes of this but there is no universally accepted system of classification
Dyslexia
Difficult or painful menstruation
Dysmenorrhea
Painful sexual intercourse
Dyspareunia
A mood characterized by general discontent and agitation
Dysphoria
Any rhythmic abnormality, as might be detected in speech or in brain waves
Dysrhythmia
Any of various sleep disorders marked by abnormalities in the amount, quality, or timing of sleep
Dyssomnia
Any depressed mood that is mild or moderate in severity
Dysthymia
A depressive disorder characterized by a depressed mood for most of the day, occurring more days than not, that persists for at least two years
- It is distinguished from major depressive disorder in that the symptoms are less severe but more enduring
Dysthymic Disorder
