A Flashcards
The simplest single case design, in which the dependent variable is measured throughout the pretreatment or baseline period (the A phase) and then again following the treatment period (the B phase).
-numerous variations of this basic design exist, such as the a-b-a design, a-b-a-b design, a-b-b b-a design, and a-b-bc-b design.
- the latter involves two treatment periods (the B phase and the C phase) and is intended to assess the effect of B both in combination with C and apart from C.
A-b design
The sixth cranial nerve, carrying motor fibers for control of the lateral rectus muscle of the eye, which rotates the eyeball outward
Abducens Nerve
- Any deviation, particularly a significant or undesirable one, from the normal or typical.
- In vision, the failure of light rays to converge at the some point, due either to distraction by a lens (spherical) or to the formation of colored fringes by a lens (chromatic)
Aberration
Existing competence or skill to perform a specific physical or mental act.
- Although this may be either innate or developed through experience, it is distinct from capacity to acquire competence
Ability
Any norm referenced standardized test designed to measure existing competence to perform a physical Er mental act
- the index of achievement or performance obtained, reporting the absolute or relative ability of the individual being evaluated, is called an ability level
Ability Test
The removal or destruction of part of a biological tissue or structure by a surgical procedure or a toxic substance, usually for treatment or to study its function.
- when the entire tissue or structure is excised, the process is called extirpation
Ablation
Relating to any deviation from what is considered typical, usual, or healthy, particularly if the deviation is considered harmful or maladaptive.
- In statistics, for example, these types of scores are those that are outside the usual or expected range.
- The term, however, most often applied to behavior that differs from a culturally accepted norm, especially when indicative of a mental disorder
Abnormal
The branch of psychology devoted to the study, prevention, assessment,and treatment of maladaptive behavior
Abnormal Psychology
The expulsion from the uterus of an embryo or fetus before it is able to survive independently
- May be either spontaneous, in which case it occurs naturally and is called a miscarriage, or induced, in which case it is produced deliberately by artificial meanssuch as drugs or surgery and done for therapeutic reasons or as an elective decision.
-the practice is controversial and may involve counseling,the provision of guidance, advice, information and support onissues concerning termination of pregnancy and the alternatives of adoption or raising the child
Abortion
The tendency of a person to hold overly favorable views of his or her intellectual and social abilities
-Appears to be common and consistent across a variety of judgement domains and occurs because people fail to take into account other people’s abilities and instead rely on their own abilities when they evaluate themselves relative to others
Above Average Effect
- the therapeutic process. Of bringing forgotten or inhibited material (experiences, memories) from the unconscious into consciousness, with concurrent emotional release and discharge of tension and anxiety
A Reaction
The horizontal coordinate in a graph or data plot; that is, the x axis
Abscissa
A type of generalized seizure, formerly called petit mal seizure, in which the individual abruptly ceased activity and cannot afterward remember the event
- The absences usually last from 5 to 15 seconds, during which the individual is unresponsive and motionless, staring blankly
- Seizures of this type typically begin between the ages of 4 and 12 and rarely persist into adulthood
Absence seizure
The lowest or weakest level of stimulation (the sightest,most in distinct sound) that can be detected consistently and accurately en 50% of trials
- although the name suggests a fixed level at which stimuli effectively elicit sensations, it fluctuates according to alterations in receptors and environmental condtions
Absolute Threshold
The numerical value of a figure disregarding its algebraic sign
- for example, the answer of this for -1 is 1
Absolute value
The philosophical position that there are absolute ethical, aesthetic, or epistemological values
- phenomena are believed to have a fixed reality; thus, what is regarded as true in one circumstance will be regarded as true in an others as well
- for example. A particular action will always be deemed immoral regardless of its outcome or any other individual or subjective consideration
- such a position involves a rejection (in whole or in part) of relativism
Absolutism
The act of refraining from the use of something, particularly avoid or drugs, or from participation in sexual or other activity
- In most instances, refraining from drugs or alcohol is the primary goal of substance abuse treatment
Abstinence
- The formation of general ideas or concepts by extracting similarities from particular instances.
- the precise cognitive processes by which this occurs remain a subject of investigation - Such a concept, especially a wholly intangible one, such as “goodness” or “truth”
Abstraction
- Interactions in which one person behaves in a cruel, violent, demeaning, or invasive manner toward another person or an animal
- The term most commonly implies physical mistreatmeant but also encompasses sexual and psychological (emotional) mistreatment - See substance abuse
Abuse
Loss of the ability to perform simple arithmetic operations that results from brain in jury or disease, usually to the parietal lobe
-It is an acquired condition, whereas dyscalculia is developmental
Acalculia
- An increase in speed of movement or rate of change
-In psychology, the focus is on the range of forces sustained by the human body when it is Ina moving vehicle, such as an automobile or aircraft, and the resultant physical, physiological. And psychological consequences (disturbances of heart rhythm and blood pressure, disorientation and confusion, and loss of consciousness)
Acceleration
Phonetic features of an individual’s speech that are associated with geographical region or social class
- The standard version of a language is usually considered by native speakers to be unaccented
Accent
In significance testing, the range of values for a test statistic that leads to acceptance of the null hypothesis over the alternative hypothesis
Acceptance Region
- In social psychology and psychotherapy, receptive or responsive to personal interaction and other external stimuli.
- A client in psychotherapy is thought to be this if he or she responds to the therapist in a way that facilitates the development or rapport and, ultimately, fosters the examination of cognitive, emotional, and behavioral issues - Retrievable through memory or other cognitive processes, as in attitude accessibility for example
Accessible
The 11th cranial nerve, sometimes so named because one of its functions is that of serving as an accessory to the 10th cranial nerve (the vagus nerve)
- it innervates the sternomastoid and trapezius muscles in the neck
Accessory Nerve
- Adjustment or modification
- for example, regarding individuals with disabilities it refers to reasonable accommodations made to meet their needs, whereas piagetian theory it refers to the adjustment of mental schemas according to information acquired through experience - The process by which the focus of the eye is changed to allow near or distant objects to form Sharp images on the retina
- Achieved mainly by contraction or relaxation of the ciliary muscles but also involves adjustments in the convergence of the eyes and the size of the pupils
Accommodation
The process by which groups or individuals integrate the social and cultural values, ideas, beliefs, and behavioral patterns of their culture of origin with those of a different culture
- The psychological type is an individual’s attitudinal and behavioral adjustment to another culture, which typically varies with regard to degree and type
Acculturation
A toxic and volatile initial product of alcohol (ethanol) metabolism that is responsible for the variety of unpleasant effects associated with a hangover, including nausea, vomiting, and headache
- It is produced when alcohol is broken down by a liver enzyme called alcohol dehydrogenase and is itself further broken down by another liver enzyme into acetate and ultimately, into carbon dioxide and water
- Widely studied to determine its relationship to and influence upon the development and progression of alcoholism
Acetaldehyde
A major, predominantly excitatory but also inhibitory, neurotransmitter in the central nervous system, where it plays an important role in memory formation and learning; and in the peripheral nervous system, where it mediates skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle contraction
Acetylcholine
Any of certain protein molecules in cell membranes in the central and peripheral nervous systems that are stimulated by acetylcholine or acetylcholine like substances
- There are two main types:
1. Muscarinic receptors
2. Nicotinic receptors
Acetylcholine Receptor
- The attainment of some goal or the goal attained
- Acquired knowledge (especially in a particular subject area such as biology), proficiency or skill
- The term is most often used in this sense to mean academic type
Achievement
- The desire to perform well and be successful
- In this sense, the term often is used synonymously with need for achievement - The desire to overcome obstacles and master difficult challenges
- High scores in this are likely to set higher standards and work with greater perseverance
Achievement Motivation
Any norm referenced standardized test intended to measure an individual’s current level of skill or knowledge in a given subject
- Often the distinction is made that these emphasize ability acquired through formal learning or training, whereas aptitude tests (usually in the form of intelligence tests) emphasize innate potential
Achievement Test
Without hue; colorless
- This type of stimuli is black, white, or shades of gray
Achromatic
Total color blindness marked by the inability to perceive any color whatsoever: everything is seen in different shades of gray
- it is a congenital condition stemming from a lack of retinal cones
Achromatism
Associated with sound
- The word is usually used to modify technical terms
- Acoustical is used as a modifier in all other contexts
Acoustic
Contraction of the middle ear muscles (the tensor tympani and stapedius muscle) elicited by intense sounds
- This reflex restricts movement of the ossicles, thus reducing the sound energy transmitted to the inner ear and partially protecting it from damage
Acoustic Reflex
A component of short term memory that retains auditory information based on how items sound
- Forgetting occurs when words or letters sound alike
Acoustic Store
The tendency of a respondent to agree with statements of opinion regardless of their content
- This often reduces the validity of interviews, questionnaires, and self reports
Acquiescent Response Set
The attainment by an individual of new behavior, information, or skills or the process by which this occurs
- Although often used interchangeably with learning, this tends to be defined somewhat more concretely as the period during which progressive, measurable increases in response strength are seen
Acquisition
- The uncontrolled and inappropriate behavioral expression of denied emotions that serves to relieve tension associated with these emotions or to communicate them in a disguised, or indirect, way to others
- Such behaviors may include arguing, fighting, steeling, threatening, or throwing tantrums - In psychoanalytic theory, reenactment of past events as an expression of unconscious emotional conflicts, feelings, or desires - often sexual or aggressive - with no attempt to understand the origin of meaning of these behaviors
Acting Out
- A self initiated sequence of movements, usually with respect to some goal
- It may consist of an integrated set of component behaviors as opposed to a single response - The occurrence or performance of a process or function (eg; of an enzyme)
Action
A cognitive deficit resulting from damage to the frontal lobes of the brain and causing individuals to make errors on multi stepped but familiar or routine tasks
- Types of errors include omissions or additions of steps, disordered sequencing of steps, and object substitutions or misuse
Action Disorganization Syndrome
The charge in electric potential that propagates along a cen during the transmission of a nerve impulse on the contradiction of a muscle
- It is marked by a rapid, transient depolarization of the cell’s membrane, from a resting potential of about -70 mV (inside negative) to about +30 mV (inside positive), and back again, after a slight hyperpolarization, to the resting potential
Action Potential
Socially useful and theoretically meaningful research developed and carried out in response to a social issue or problem, results of which are used to improve the situation
Action Research
In classical ethology, a hypothetical supply of motivational energy within an organism that is associated with specific unlearned behavioral responses known as fixed action patterns
- Each response has its own energy supply, which builds up until the organism encounters the appropriate releaser
Action Specific Energy
- In many theories of memory, an attribute of the representational units (such as nodes or logogens) that varies from weaker or stronger, with more strongly activated representations competing to control processing
- The process of averting an organ or body system for action, particularly arousal of one organ or system by another
Activation
A transient hormonal effect that typically causes a short term change in behavior or physiological activity in adult animals
- For example, increased testosterone in male songbirds in spring leads to increased aggression in territory defense and increased courtship behavior
Activational Effect
In attribution theory, the tendency for individuals acting in a situation to attribute the causes of their behavior to external or situational factors, such as social pressure, but for observers to attribute the some behavior to internal or dispositional factors, such as personality
Actor Observer Effect
A disorder representing the immediate psychological aftermath of exposure to a traumatic stressor
- Symptoms are the same as those of post traumatic stress disorder but do not last longer than 4 weeks
- This disorder also includes elements of dissociation, such as depersonalization and derealization
Acute Stress Disorder
- Adjustment of a sense organ to the intensity or quality of stimulation, resulting in a temporary change in sensory or perceptual experience, as in visual type when the pupil of the eye adjusts to dim or bright light
- Reduced responsiveness in a sensory receptor or sensory system caused by prolonged or repeated stimulation
- It may be specific, for example, to the orientation of a particular stimulus - Modification to suit different or changing circumstances
- In this sense, the term often refers to behavior that enables an individual to adjust to the environment effectively and function optimally in various domains, such as coping with daily stressors - Adjustments to the demands, restrictions, and mores of society, including the ability to live and work harmoniously with others and to engage in satisfying social interactions and relationships
Adaptation
A task or project that a group can complete by aggregating individual members’ efforts or contributions (eg, a five person group pulling together on a rope to move a heavy object)
- Groups usually out perform individuals on such tasks, but overall group productivity rarely reaches its maximum potential owing to social loafing
Additive Task
The period of human development that starts with puberty (10-12 years of age) and ends with physiological maturity (approximately 19 years of age), although the exact age span varies across individuals
- During this period major changes occur at varying rates in physical characteristics, sexual characteristics, and sexual interest, resulting in significant effects on body image, self concept, and self esteem
- Major cognitive and social developments take place as well: most young people acquire enhanced abilities to think abstractly, evaluate reality hypothetically, reconsider poor experiences from altered points of view, assess data from multiple dimensions, reflect inwardly, create complex models of understanding, and project complicated future scenarios
- they also increase their peer related activities, place greater emphasis on social acceptance, and seek more independence and autonomy from parents
Adolescence
The philosophical study of beauty and art, concerned particularly with the articulation of taste and questions regarding the value of this type of experience and the making of these types of judgements
Aesthetics
Any feeling or emotion, which may be irreflexive or reflexive
- Irreflexive is the direct experience in consciousness of a particular emotional state (as in a person’s feeling of elation upon receiving good news)
- Reflexive occurs when a person makes his or her feelings objects of scrutiny (as when a person wonders why he or she does not feel particularly elated upon receiving good news)
-A distinction may also be made between negative and positive
- Along with cognition and conation, it is one of the three traditionally identified components of mind
Affect
Predicting one’s own future emotional states, especially in connection with some event or outcome that one faces
- People often “forecast” more extreme and lasting emotional reactions to events than they actuary experience
Affective Forecasting
A discipline that addresses the brain mechanisms underlying emotions
- In seeking to understand the particular roles of major subcortical and cortical structures in the elicitation, experience, and regulation of emotion, this provides an important framework for understanding the neural processes that underlie psychopathology, particularly the mood and substance related orders
Affective Neuroscience
Conducting or conveying from the periphery toward a central point
- For example, these types of nerve fibers conduct impulses toward the brain or spinal cord
Afferent
A social relationship with one or more other individuals, usually based on liking or a more personal attachment rather than on perceived material benefits
- It appears to be a basic source of emotional security, given the anxiety, frustration, and loneliness stemming from the absence of such relationships
- Some propose that the seeking of cooperative, friendly association with others who resemble or like one or when one likes is a fundamental human desire, referring to it variously as the affiliations drive or affiliative need
Affiliation
- An inherent attraction to or liking for a particular person, place, or thing, often based on some commonality
- Relationship by marriage or adoption rather than blood
- This contrasts with consanguinity, a biological relationship between individuals who are descended from a common ancestor
Affinity
In the theory of ecological perception, any property of the physical environment that is relevant to motor behavior and thus offers or affords an organism the opportunity for a particular action
- An example is the orientation of an object’s handle
- When the handle is closest to the left hand, it allows a left hand reach and grasp movement
- This is provided by an intrinsic property, the physical dimensions necessary for grasping it, as well as an extrinsic property, the distance to the nearest hand
Affordance
A program of outpatient treatment and support services provided for individuals discharged from an institution, such as a hospital or mental health facility, to help maintain improvement, prevent relapse, and aid adjustment of the individual to the community
Aftercare
The image that remains after a stimulus ends or is removed
- A positive one occurs rarely, lasts a few seconds, and is caused by a continuation of receptor and neural processes following cessation of the stimulus; it has approximately the color and brightness of the original stimulus
- A negative one is more common, often more intense, and lasts longer
- It is usually complementary to the original stimulus in color and brightness; for example, if the stimulus was bright yellow, the negative one will be dark blue
Afterimage
In research, any outcome associated with being a certain age
- Such effects may be difficult to separate from cohort effects and period effects
Age Effect
The tendency to be prejudiced against older adults and to negatively stereotype them (for example, as unhealthy, helpless, or incompetent) and the resulting discrimination, especially in employment and in healthcare
Ageism
A psychological state that occurs when individuals, as subordinates to a higher authority in an organized status hierarchy, feel compelled to obey the orders issued by that authority
Agentic State
A hypnotic technique in which the therapist helps the client recall a crucial experience by inducing amnesia for the present, then suggesting that he or she return, year by year, to the earlier date when a particular experience took place
- This technique is also used in forensic contexts to help eyewitnesses and victims recall their experiences
- The use of this in either context is controversial, given the potential for fraise memories and the debateable legitimacy of recovered memories
Age Regression
Behavior that harms others physically or psychologically or destroys property
- It can be distinguished from anger in that anger is oriented at overcoming the target but not necessarily through harm or destruction
- When such behavior is purposively performed with the primary goal of intentional injury or destruction it is termed hostile type
- Other types are less deliberately damaging and may be instrumentally motivated (proactive) or affective or motivated (reactive)
- Instrumental type involves an action carried out principally to achieve another goal, such as acquiring a desired resource
- Affective type involves an emotional response to an aversive state of affairs, which tends to be targeted toward the perceived source of the distress but may be displaced ante other people or objects if the disturbing agent cannot be attacked (displaced type)
-In the classical psychoanalytic theory of Austrian psychiatrist Sigmund Freud (1856 - 1939), this type of impulse is innate and derived from the death instinct, but most nonpsychoanalytically oriented psychologists view it as socially learned or as a reaction to frustration
Aggression
The biological and psychological changes associated with chronological age
- A distinction is often made between changes that are due to normal biological processes (primary) and changes that are caused by age related pathologies (secondary)
Aging
A state of increased but typically purposeless and repetitious activity, as in psychomotor type
Agitation
Loss or impairment of the ability to recognize or appreciate the nature of sensory stimuli due to brain damage or disorder
- Recognition impairment is profound and specific to a particular sensory modality
- Auditory, tactile, and visual are the most common types, and each has a variety of subtypes
Agnosia
- A drug or other chemical agent that binds to a particular receptor and produces a physiological effect, typically one similar to that of the body’s own neurotransmitter at that receptor
- There are partial type, which stimulate the receptor to produce a physiological effect opposite to that produced by another one at that same receptor - A contracting muscle whose action generates force in the intended direction
Agonist
An excessive, irrational fear of being in open or unfamiliar places, resulting in the avoidance of public situations from which escape may be difficult, such as standing in line or being in a crowd
- It may accompany panic disorder, in which an individual experiences unexpected panic attacks, or it may occur in the absence of panic disorder, when an individual experiences panic like symptoms or limited symptom attacks
Agoraphobia
A manifestation of aphasia characterized by loss or impairment of the ability to use speech that conforms to grammatical rules, such as those governing word order, verb tense, and subject verb agreement
Agrammatism
A decline in the number of certain white blood cells (neutrophils), typically as a result of an immune reaction to a drug or other chemical or the toxic effect of this substance on the bone madras, causing production of white blood cells to fall
- The condition results in suppression of the immune response, rendering individuals vulnerable to opportunistic infections
Agranulocytosis
Loss or impairment of the ability to write as a result of neurological damage or disorder
- The specific forms of writing difficulties vary considerably, but may include problems with such things as spelling irregular or ambiguous words, writing numbers or particular letters, or performing the motor movements needed for handwriting
Agraphia
The emotional reaction that typically occurs at a moment of sudden insight into a problem or other puzzling issue
- For example, in psychotherapy it is a client’s sudden insight into his or her motives for cognitions, affects, or behaviors
Aha Experience
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome: a clinical condition in which the immune system is so severely damaged from infection with human immunodeficiency virus as to result in certain serious opportunistic infections and diseases
AIDS
The property of a behavior, behavior pattern, situation, or other stimulus that might lead to interpretation in more than one way
Ambiguity
The degree to which one is able to accept, and to function without distress or disorientation in, situations having conflicting or multiple interpretations or outcomes
Ambiguity Tolerance
A visual stimulus that can be interpreted in more than one way, such as an embedded figure or a reversible figure
- A well known example is the young girl
- old woman image, in which the block and white drawing sometimes appears to be of a young girl and sometimes of an old lady
- This phenomenon is not restricted to the visual: it can be one of any sensory modality that can have multiple interpretations
Ambiguous Figure
The simultaneous existence of contradictory feelings and attitudes, such as friendliness and hostility, toward the same person, object, event, or situation
- Swiss psychiatrist Eugen Bleuler (1857 - 1939), who was the first to use this term in a psychological sense, regarded extreme versions as a major symptom of schizophrenia
Ambivalence
Poor vision caused by abnormal visual experience in early life and not any physical defect of the eye
- Common predisposing conditions include misalignment of the eyes (strabismus) and differing refractive powers of the eyes (anisometropia)
Amblyopia
The absence of menstruation
- When menstruation fails to begin after puberty, the condition is called primary type
-If menstrual periods stop, in the absence of pregnancy or menopause, after starting, the condition is known as secondary
Amenorrhea
A national medical and professional organization whose physician members specialize in the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of mental disorders
- Founded in 1844, its objectives include the improvement of care for people with mental illnesses, the promotion of research and professional education in psychiatry, and the dissemination of psychological knowledge through nationwide public information education and awareness programs and materials
- It’s extensive publications include the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, the most widely used reference for diagnosis
American Psychiatric Association
A scientific and professional organization found in 1892 that represents psychology in the United States and is the largest association of psychologists worldwide
- It’s mission is to advance psychology as a science, as a profession, and as a means of promoting health and human welfare
- Among its specific goals are the promotion of psychological research and improvement of research methods and conditions, the establishment and maintenance of high standards of professional ethics and conduct of its members, and the increase and diffusion of psychological knowledge through a variety of means, including scholarly journals, the APA Publication Manual, books, videotapes, and electronic databases
American Psychological Association
An irregularly shaped but apparently rectangular room in which cues for depth perception are used experimentally to distort the viewer’s perception of the relative size of objects within the room [ Adelbert Ames, Jr. (1880 - 1955), U.S. Psychologist, inventor, and artist]
Ames Room
An organic compound that contains an amino group (-NH2) and a carboxyl group (-COOH) 20 of which are constituents of proteins; 9 of these are essential, that is they cannot be synthesized by the body and must be obtained from foods
- others are neurotransmitters or precursors to neurotransmitters
Amino Acid
Partial or complete loss of memory
- Either temporary or permanent, it may be due to physiological factors such as injury, disease, or substance use, or to psychological factors such as traumatic experience
- A disturbance in memory marked by inability to learn new information is called anterograde and one marked by inability to recall previously learned information or past events is called retrograde
- When severe enough to interfere with social or occupational functioning or to represent a significant decline from a previous level of functioning, the memory loss is known as amnesic disorder
Amnesia
A method of examining fetal chromosomes for any abnormalities or for determination of sex
- A hollow needle is inserted through the mother’s abdominal wall into the uterus, enabling the collection of amniotic fluid, which contains fetal cells
Amniocentesis
A culture bound syndrome observed among males in Malaysia, the Philippines, and other parts of Southeast Asia
- The individual experiences a period of social withdrawal and apathy, followed by a violent, unprovoked attack on nearby individuals
- If not overpowered or killed, the affected male eventually collapses from exhaustion and afterward has no memory of the event
Amok
A group of drugs that stimulate the reticular formation and cause a release of stored dopamine and norepinephrine
- The effect is a prolonged state of arousal and relief from feelings of fatigue
- Introduced in 1932, these are prone to abuse and dependence and tolerance develops progressively with continued use
- Although widely used in the past for weight loss, relief of depression and other indications, modern use of this drug is more circumscribed because of their adverse effects
- They are now used mainly to manage symptoms of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and to treat certain cases of severe depression and narcolepsy
Amphetamines
Magnitude of extent (eg, of a stimulus) or peak value (eg, of a sinusoid wave)
Amplitude
An almond shaped structure in the temporal lobe that is a component of the limbic system and considered part of the basal ganglia
- It comprises two main groups of nuclei - the corticomedial group and the basolateral group - and through widespread connections with other brain areas has numerous viscerosensory and autonomic functions as well as an important role in memory emotion, perception of threat, and fear of learning
Amygdala
A chemically diverse protein that accumulates abnormally between neural and other bodily cells, negatively affecting their functioning
- There are various types, each associated with different pathological conditions
- For example, betas have received considerable attention for its detrimental influence upon memory and cognition in Alzheimer’s disease
Amyloid
Dependent depression: intense sadness and dysphoria stemming from early disruptions in caring relationships such as deprivation, inconsistency, or overindulgence that lead to an indefinite fear of loss of love, abandonment, and impoverishment
- The individual expresses a child like dependency; has little capacity for frustration; and desires to soothed directly and immediately
Anaclitic Depression
Strength based physical activity, such as weight training and sprinting, that occurs in short, intense bursts with limited oxygen intake
- The threshold is the point at which energy use of the body is so great as to require the muscles to begin producing energy in the absence of adequate oxygen
Anaerobic Exercise
In psychoanalytic theory, the second stage of psychosexual development, typically occurring during the second year of life, in which the child’s interest and sexual pleasure are focused on the expulsion and retention of feces and the sadistic instinct is linked to the desire to both possess and destroy the object
Anal Stage
Absence of or reduction in the sensation of pain
- Drugs and other substances that alleviate pain are called analgesics
- The former usually are classified as opioids (narcotic) or non opioid (non narcotic), depending on their chemical composition and potential for physical dependence
Analgesia
A test of the participant’s ability to comprehend the relationship between two items and then extend that relationship to a different situation: for example, paintbrush is to paint as pen is to -
Analogies Test
A research in design in which the procedures or participants used are similar but not identical to the situation of interest
- For example, if researchers are interested in the effects of therapist’s gender on client perceptions of therapist trustworthiness, they may use undergraduate students who are not clients and provide simulated counseling dialogues that are typed and identified as offered by a male or female therapist
- The results of such studies are assumed to offer a high degree of experimental control and to generalize to actual clinical practice
Analogue Study
- In biology, a similarity of function in bodily structures with different evolutionary origins
- For example, the hand of a human and the trunk of an elephant are similar in that both are used for manipulating objects - A method of argument that relies on an influence that a similarity between two or more entities in some attributes justifies a probable assumption that they will be similar in other attributes
Analogy
In psychoanalysis, a patient who is undergoing analysis
Analysand
Any theory of information processing stating that both data driven processes and conceptually driven processes interact in the recognition and interpretation of sensory input
- According to such theories, which are associated particularly with speech perception and language processing, the person analyzes the original physical stimulus input, hypothesizes what it is based on experience or learning, determines what the input would be like if the hypothesis were correct, and then assesses whether the input is actually like that
Analysis by Synthesis
An extension of the analysis of variance that adjusts the dependent variable for the influence of a correlated variable (covariate) that is not being investigated but may influence the study results
- This is appropriate in two types of cases:
A) When experimental are suspected to differ on a background correlated variable in addition to the experimental treatment
B) Where adjustment on a covariate can increase the precision of the experiment
Analysis of Covariance
Any of several statistical procedures that isolate the joint and separate effects of independent variables upon a dependent variable and test them for statistical significance (ie, to determine whether they are greater than they would be if obtained by chance alone)
Analysis of Variance
Generally one who practices psychoanalysis
- This is usually a psychoanalyst in the tradition of Austrian psychiatrist Sigmund Freud (1856 -1939); however, the term is also applied to therapists adhering to the methods of Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung (1875 -1961) or Austrian psychiatrist Alfred Adler (1870 -1936)
Analyst
The system of psychoanalysis proposed by Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung (1875 -1961), in which the psyche is interpreted primarily in terms of philosophical values, primordial images and symbols, and a drive for self fulfillment
- Jung’s basic concepts are:
A) The ego, which maintains a balance between conscious and unconscious activities and gradually develops a unique self through individuation
B) The personal unconscious, made up of memories, thoughts and feelings based on personal experience
C) The collective unconscious, made up of ancestral images or archetypes, that constitute the inherited foundation of an individual’s intellectual life and personality
D) Dynamic polarities, or tension systems, which derive their psychic energy from the libido and influence the expression and development of the ego
Analytic Psychology
In the triarchic theory of intelligence, the skills measured by conventional tests of intelligence, such as analysis, comparison, evaluation, critique and judgement
Analytical Intelligence
The loss of sensitivity to stimuli, either in a particular area (local) or throughout the body and accompanied by loss of consciousness (general)
- It may be produced intentionally, for example, via the administration of drugs (called anesthetics) or the use of techniques such as acupuncture or hypnotic suggestion, or it may occur spontaneously as a result of injury or disease
Anaesthesia
A reference point used when making a series of subjective judgements
- For example, in an experiment in which participants gauge distances between objects, the experiment introduces this by informing the participants that the distance between two of the stimulus objects is a given value
- That value then functions as a reference for participants in their subsequent judgements
Anchor
The tendency, in forming perceptions or making quantitative judgements of some entity under conditions of uncertainty, to give excessive weight to the initial starting value, based on the first received information or one’s initial judgement and not to modify it sufficiently in light or later information
- For example, estimates of the product of 9 X 8 X 7 X 6 X 5 X 4 X 3 X 2 X 1 tend to be higher than estimates of the product 1 X 2 X 3 X 4 X 5 X 6 X 7 X 8 X 9
Anchoring Bias
Any of a class of steroid hormones that act as the principal male sex hormones, the major one being testosterone
- Produced mainly by the testes and influence the development of masculine primary and secondary sex characteristics
- They are also secreted in small quantities by the cortex of the adrenal grand and can be produced synthetically
Androgen
An inherited condition affecting the development of reproductive and genital organs, caused by varying degrees of insensitivty to androgens
There are two forms:
- Complete, in which the insensitivity is total, resulting in external genitalia that are female, and partial, in which some sensitivty to the hormones allows for external genitalia that may be structurally ambiguous
- In both forms, however, the internal organs are male (ie, testes)
Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome
- The presence of male and female characteristics in one individual
- The state of being neither distinguishably masculine or feminine in appearance, as in dress
Androgyny
An investigational technique in which informal verbal reports of incidents casually observed (eg, a particular feat of a particular animal) are accepted as useful information
- This method is scientifically inadequate but can offer clues as to areas of investigation that warrant more systematic, controlled research
Anecdotal Method
Congenital absence of the cranial vault (the bones forming the rear of the skull), with cerebral hemispheres completely missing or reduced to small masses
- Infants born with this are usually blind, deaf, unconscious, and unable to feel pain
Anencephaly
An enlargement (widening) at some point in an artery caused by the pressure of blood on weakened tissues, often at junctions where arteries split off from one another
Aneurysm
An emotion characterized by tension and hostility arising from frustration, real or imagined injury by another, or perceived injustice
- It can manifest itself in behaviors designed to remove the object of it (eg, determined action) or behaviors designed merely to express the emotion eg, swearing)
- It is distinct from, but a significant activator of aggression, which is behavior intended to harm someone or something
- Despite their mutually influential relationship, it is neither necessary nor sufficient for aggression to occur
Anger
A tumor of the vascular system; an abnormal mass of blood vessels or lymph vessels
Angioma
One of a family of peptides, including I, II, and III that are produced by the enzymatic action of renin on a precursor protein in the bloodstream
- Their effects include narrowing of blood vessels, increased blood pressure, thirst, and stimulation of aldosterone release from the adrenal glands
Angiotensin
In existentialism, a state of anguish or despair in which a person recognizes the fundamental uncertainty of existence and understands the significance of conscious choice and personal responsibility
Angst
A ridge along the lower surface of the parietal lobe of the brain, formed by a junction of the superior and middle temporal gyri
- This region has been proposed as the key area of reading and writing function
- Lesions are associated with Alexia and Agraphia, and structural abnormalities with dyslexia
Angular Gyrus
The inability to enjoy experiences or activities that normally would be pleasurable
- It is one of two defining symptoms of major depressive episode (the other being a persistent depressed mood), but is also seen in other disorders, including schizophrenia
Anhedonia
Characteristics or conditions of an animal that are similar to those of humans, thus making the animal suitable for studying human behavior, processes, disorders or diseases, and so forth
Animal Model
The belief that natural phenomena or inanimate objects are alive or poses lifelike characteristics, such as intentions, desires, and feelings
- Was considered by Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget ( 1896 - 1980) to be characteristic of the thought of children in the preoperational stage later fading out and being replaced by the strong belief in the universal nature of physical causality
Animism
Anything that is irregular or deviates from the norm, often referring to a congenital or development defect
Anomaly
Loss or impairment of the ability to name objects
- All individuals with aphasia exhibit this and the extent of naming difficulty is a good general measure of aphasia severity
Anomia
A sense of alienation and hopelessness in a society or group that is often a response to social upheaval
- It may also be accompanied by changes in personal and social values
Anomie
Absence or loss of appetite for food, or less commonly, for other desires (eg, sex), especially when chronic
- It may be primarily a psychological disorder, as in anorexia nervosa, or it may have physiological causes, such as hypopituitarism
Anorexia
An eating disorder, occurring more frequently in adolescent girls, that involves persistent refusal of food, excessive fear of weight gain, refusal to maintain minimally normal body weight, disturbed perception of body image, and amennhorea (absence of at least three menstrual periods)
Anorexia Nervosa
Absence or loss of the ability to smell, which may be general or limited to certain odors
- General or total implies inability to smell all odorants on both sides of the nose, whereas partial implies an inability to smell certain odorants
Anosmia
A neurologically based failure to recognize the existence of a deficit or disorder, such as hearing loss, poor vision, or paralysis
Anosognosia
Total lack of oxygen in the body tissues, including the brain
- Consequences depend on the severity of it and the specific areas of the brain that are affected, but can include generalized cognitive deficits or more focal deficits in memory, perception, or executive function
- Sometimes is used as a synonym for hypoxia
Anoxia
A drug or other chemical agent that inhibits the action of another substance
- for example, is may combine with the substance to alter and thus inactivate it (chemical antagonism); it may reduce the effects of a substance by binding to the same receptor without stimulating it, which decreases the number of available receptors (pharmological antagonism) or it may bind to a different receptor and produce a physiological effect opposite to that of the receptor (physiological antagonism)
2. A contracting muscle whose action generates force opposing the intended direction of movement
- This force may serve to slow the movement rapidly as it approaches the target or it may help to define the movement end point
Antagonist
A trade name for disulfiram
Antabuse
An event, circumstance, or stimulus that precedes some other event and often elicits, signals, or sets the occasion for a particular behavior or response
Antecedent
In front of or toward the front
-In reference to two legged upright animals, this term is sometimes used interchangeably with ventral to mean toward the front surface of the body
Anterior
The ability to retain events, experiences, and other information following a particular point in time
- When this ability is impaired (ie, by injury or disease), it becomes very difficult or even impossible to recall what happened from that moment forward, a condition known as anterograde amnesia
- For example, an individual with deficits of this resulting from a stroke might not remember the name of a new person introduced to him or her but would remember the name of a close childhood friend
Anterograde Memory
The explicit or implicit assumption that human experience is the central reality and by extension, the idea that all phenomena can be evaluated in the light of their relationship to humans
Anthropocentrism
The branch of linguistics that draws connections between the characteristics of a particular language and the cultural practices, social structures, and worldview of the society in which it is spoken
Anthropological Linguistics
The study of human beings
- This typically involves the description and explanation of similarities and differences among human groups in their languages, aesthetic expressions, belief systems, and social structures over the range of human geography and chronology
Anthropology
- The scientific study of how the size and proportions of the human body are affected by such variables as age, sex, and ethnic and cultural groups
- The taking of measurements of the human body for purposes of comparison and study
Anthropometry
- The attribution of human characteristics to nonhuman entities such as deities, spirits, animals, plants or inanimate objects
- In comparative psychology, the tendency to interpret the behavior and mental processes of nonhuman animals in terms of their abilities
- A variation is anthropocentrism which uses human behavior as the standard by which the behavior of nonhuman animals, for example, intelligence is evaluated
Anthropomorphism
A modified protein molecule, produced by B lymphocytes, that interacts with an antigen and renders it harmless
- Each type is designed to interact with a specific antigen and can be mass produced following previous exposure to an identical antigen
Antibody
Any drug used to reduce the frequency or severity of epileptic seizures or to terminate a seizure already underway
- Until the advent of the hydantoins in the 1930s which were specifically to control epileptic seizures, these consisted mainly of bromides (largely supplanted due to their toxicity and frequency of adverse side effects) and barbiturates
- Also effective as anti-seizure medication is the benzodiazepines
Anticonvulsant
Any drug administered in the treatment of depression
- Most work by increasing the availability of monoamine neurotransmitters such as norepinephrine, although they do so by different routes
- The monoamine oxidase inhibitors work by inhibiting monoamine oxidase, one of the principal enzymes that metabolize these neurotransmitters
- Most of the other ones, including the tricyclic and the selective serotonin uptake inhibitors inhibit the trip take of serotonin and norepinephrine (and to a much lesser degree, dopamine) into the presynaptic neuron
- Either process leaves more of the neurotransmitter free to bind with postsynaptic receptors, initiating a series of events in the postsynaptic neuron that is thought to produce the actual therapeutic effect
Antidepressant
Any substance that is treated by the immune system as foreign and is therefore capable of inducing an immune response, particularly the production of antibodies that render it harmless
- These may be a virus, a bacterium, a toxin (eg, bee veron), or tissue (eg, blood) of another individual with different genetic characteristics
Antigen
Denoting or exhibiting behavior that sharply deviates from social norms and also violates other people’s rights
- Arson and vandalism are examples of this type of behavior
Antisocial
The presence of a chronic and pervasive disposition to disregard and violate the rights of others
- Manifestations include repeated violations of the law, exploitation of others, deceitfunness, impulsivity, aggressiveness, reckless disregard for the safety of self and others, and irresponsibility, accompanied by lack of guilt, remorse, and empathy,
- The disorder has been known by various names, notably psychopathic personality and sociopathic personality
- It is the most heavily researched of the personality disorders and the most difficult to treat
Antisocial Personality Disorder
- A thesis, idea, or proposition that’s opposite to or contradicts another
- In philosophy, the second stage of a dialectical process based on proposition, contradiction, and the reconciliation of these
Antithesis
An emotion characterized by apprehension and somatic symptoms of tension in which an individual anticipates impending danger, catastrophe, or misfortune
- The body often mobilizes itself to meet the perceived threat; muscles become tense, breathing is faster and the heart beats more rapidly
- It may be distinguished from fear both conceptually and physiologically, although the terms are often used interchangeably
- The former is considered a disproportionate response to a vague, unidentifiable threat whereas the latter is an appropriate response to a clearly identifiable and specific threat
Anxiety
Any of a group of disorders that have as their central organizing theme the emotional state of fear, worry, or anxious apprehension
- This category includes obsessive compulsive disorder, panic disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder, and generalized anxiety disorder
- They have a chronic course, albeit waxing and waning in intensity, and are among the most common mental health problems in the United States
Anxiety Disorder
Fear of sensations associated with anxiety because of the belief that they will have harmful consequences
- For example, an individual with high levels of this is likely to regard feeling lightheaded as a sign of impending Illness or fainting whereas an individual with low levels would tend to regard this situation as simply unpleasant
- Research indicates that high levels of this is a personality risk factor for the development of panic attacks and panic disorder
Anxiety Sensitivity
Any of a class of drugs used in the control of anxiety, mild behavioral agitation, and insomnia
- Formerly called minor tranquilizers, they can also be used as adjunctive agents in the treatment of depression and panic disorder
- The most widely used are benzodiazepines
Anxiolytic
An interpersonal style characterized by worry that a partner will break off a relationship or by hesitancy in forming deeply committed relationships despite a desire to do so
Anxious Ambivalent Attachment Style
Guidelines and standards for writing (eg, grammar) and formatting (eg, data display and headings) for students, instructors, researchers, and clinicians in the social and behavioral sciences, as collected in the publication manual of the American Psychological Association
APA Style
Indifference and lack of response
Apathy
An evaluation of newborn infants on five factors:
Skin color, heart rate, respiratory effort, reflexes and muscle tone
- The evaluation is typically performed at one minute and again at five minutes after birth to assess the physical condition of the infant and to determine quickly if he or she needs medical care
- Each factor is scored 0,1, or 2 with a maximum total of 10 points
[Developed in 1952 by Virginia Apgar (1904-1974), U.S. anesthesiologist]
Apgar Score
Inability to swallow or eat
Aphagia
An acquired language impairment that results from neurological damage to the language areas of the brain, which are typically located outside the left hemisphere
- Traditionally, a distinction has been made between expressive and receptive forms, whereby individuals with the former primarily have difficulty producing spoken and written language and the latter primarily have difficulty comprehending spoken and written language
- Numerous types exist including Broca’s and Wernike’s
Aphasia
Temporary suspension of respiration
- Can occur during sleep and is also found in many disorders
Apnea
- Any instrument or equipment used during an experiment
- In biology, a group of structures that perform a particular function
Apparatus
An illusion of motion or change in size of a visual stimulus
- Several types have been identified and labeled with Greek letters, among them the familiar beta movement, in which successive presentations of stationary stimuli across the visual field produce the perception of a single smoothly moving stimulus, and gamma movement, the seeming expansion of an object when it is suddenly presented and contraction when withdrawn
Apparent Movement
The knowledge that the appearance of an object does not necessarily correspond to its reality
- For example, a sponge shaped like a rock may look like a rock but it is really a sponge
- Children younger than three may have difficulty making these distinctions
Appearance Reality Distinction
- The mental process by which a perception or an idea is assimilated into an individual’s existing knowledge, thoughts and emotions (his or her apperceptive mass)
- The actor process of perceiving something consciously
Apperception
The application of the theories, principles, and techniques of psychology to practical concerns such as problems of living or coping, education, vocational guidance, industry, ergonomics, consumer affairs, advertising, political campaigns, and environmental issues
- It may be contrasted with theoretical psychology in which the emphasis is on understanding for its own sake rather than the utility of the knowledge
Applied Psychology
Research conducted for the practical purpose of serving a real world problem rather than developing a theory or obtaining knowledge for its own sake
Applied Research
A technique in behavior therapy that focuses on changing physiological responses ( eg, low blood pressure…) by having the client practice muscle tensing and releasing during exposure to increasingly anxiety provoking stimuli associated with a feared situation
- the technique was developed and is still primarily used for blood, injury, and injection phobias
Applied Tension
The cognitive evaluation of the nature and significance of a phenomenon or event
- In these theories of emotions, such evaluations are seen as determinants of emotional experience
Appraisal
The desire to gain accurate information about the self
- It leads people to seek highly relevant, explicit feedback and to reject flattery or other bias
Appraisal Motive
- Uneasiness or dread about an upcoming event or the future generally
- The act or capability of grasping something mentally
- For example, this span is the maximum number of distinct objects that can be reported from one glance at an array of items ( eg, specific letters from a group of words)
Apprehension
A situation involving a choice between two equally desirable but incompatible alternatives
Approach Approach Conflict
Loss or impairment of the ability to perform purposeful skilled movements despite intact motor function and comprehension
- The condition may be developmental or induced by neurological dysfunction and is believed to represent an impairment of the ability to plan, select, and sequence the motor execution of movements
- There are several types, including:
1) Identical, involving difficulty carrying out in the proper order a series of acts that comprise a complex task
2. Ideomotor, involving difficulty imitating actions or gesturing to command
3. Speech, involving difficulty coordinating the movements necessary for speaking
Apraxia
The capacity to acquire competence or skill through training
- A specific type of this is potential in a particular area ( eg, artistic or mathematical); general type of this is potential in several fields
- Both are distinct from ability which is an existing competence
Aptitude
Any assessment instrument designed to measure potential for acquiring knowledge or skill
- These tests are thought of as providing a basis for making predictions for an individual about future success, particularly in either an educational or occupational situation
- In contrast, achievement tests are considered to reflect the amount of learning already obtained
Aptitude Test
A persistent and irrational fear of spiders
Arachnophobia
In analytic psychology, a structural component of the mind that derives from the accumulated experience of humankind
- These inherited components are stored in the collective unconscious and serve as a frame of reference with which individuals view the world and as one of the major foundations on which the structure of the personality is built
Archetype
The use of books, journals, historical documents and other existing records or data available in storage in scientific research
- These methods provide unobtrusive observation of human activity in natural settings and permit the study of phenomena that otherwise cannot easily be investigated
- A persistent drawback, however, is that causal inferences are always more tentative than those provided by laboratory experiments
Archival Research
A bundle of nerve fibers linking the parts of the brain involved in the interpretation and control of speech (Wernike’s area and Broca’s area)
- Lesions of this tract produce conduction aphasia
Arcuate Fasciculus
- An arc shaped collection of neurons in the hypothalamus that produce hormones
- Any of various small groups of grey matter on the bulge of the medulla oblongata
- They are extensions of neurons in the basal pond and project to the cerebellum
Arcuate Nucleus
A parameter on which the value of a mathematical function depends
Argument
- A state of physiological activation of cortical responsiveness, associated with sensory stimulation and activation of fibers from the reticular activating system
- A state of excitement or energy expenditure linked to an emotion
- Usually, it is closely related to a person’s appraisal of the significance of an event or to the physical intensity of a stimulus
Arousal
The theory that the physical environment can affect arousal levels by stimulation and by stress created when psychological or physical needs are not met
- Arousal increases when personal space is diminished or when people are subjected to noise or traffic congestion
Arousal Theory
Any ordered arrangement of data, particularly a two dimensional grouping of data into rows and columns ( ie, a matrix)
- The concept may be extended to more than two dimensions
Array
Any variation from the normal rhythm of the heartbeat
- Types of these include (among others) tachycardia, any rate above 100 beats per minute, and bradycardia, a rate of less than 60 beats per minute
Arrhythmia
The use of artistic activities, such as painting and clay modeling, in psychotherapy and rehabilitation
- The process of making art is seen as a means of symbolic communication and a vehicle for developing new insights, resolving conflicts, solving problems, and formulating new perceptions
Art Therapy
A group of diseases characterized by hardening and loss of elasticity of the walls of the arteries
- A common type is atherosclerosis
Arteriosclerosis
Inflammation of a joint, causing pain, swelling, and stiffness
- the most severe and disabling form is rheumatoid, associated with the body attacking its own cells as foreign
Arthritis
- The shaping and production of the sounds required for intelligible speech
- It is a complex process involving not only accurate movements of the vocal tract (eg, lips, tongue, soft palate) but also neural integration of numerous other activities - A joint between bones, which may be fixed or movable
Articulation
A component of short term memory that retains auditory information based on the motor systems involved in pronouncing items, rather than how they sound
Articulatory Store
An experimental finding that is not a reflection of the true state of nature but rather the consequent of flawed design or analytic error
Artifact
The use of medical techniques to achieve conception by introducing sperm into the female reproductive system through the cervical opening and directly into the uterus
- May need to be done more than once for pregnancy to occur, to maximize its success it’s usually scheduled to coincide with the days of ovulation
Artificial Insemination
A subdiscipline of computer science that aims to produce programs that simulate human intelligence
- There are many branches, including robotics, computer vision, machine learning, game playing and expert systems
- Has also supported research in other released areas, including cognitive science and computational linguistics
Artificial Intelligence
Human intervention in animal or plant reproduction to improve the value or utility of succeeding generations
Artificial Selection
A character trait or lifestyle characterized by simplicity, renunciation of physical pleasures and worldly goods, social withdrawal, and extreme self discipline
Asceticism
An experimental paradigm used to study conformity to group opinion
- Participants make perceptual judgements as part of a group of confederates who make errors deliberately in certain trials
- The extent to which participants publicly agree with the erroneous group judgement or resist the pressure to do so and remain independent provides a measure of conformity [Solomon Asch (1907 - 1996) Polish born U.S. Psychologist]
Asch Situation
A pervasive developmental disorder associated with varying degrees of deficits in social and conversational skills, difficulties with transitions from one task to another or with changes in situations and environments and preference for sameness and predictability of events
- Obsessive routines and preoccupation with particular subjects of interest may be present, as may difficulty reading body language and maintaining proper social distance
- In contrast to Autistic disorder, language skills develop, and there is no clinically significant delay in cognitive or adaptive functioning other then in social interactions
- Also called Asperger’s syndrome [described in 1944 by Hans Asperger (1906 - 1980), Austrian psychiatrist]
Asperger’s Disorder
A method of teaching individuals to change verbal and nonverbal signals and behavioral patterns and to enhance interpersonal communication generally through techniques designed to help them express emotions, opinions, and preferences - positive and negative - clearly, directly, and in an appropriate manner
- Role play or behavior rehearsal is often used to prepare clients to be appropriately assertive in real life situations
Assertiveness Training
The process of absorbing, incorporating, or making similar
- for example, social type is the process by which an immigrant to a new culture adopts the culture’s beliefs and practices
Assimilation
An action taken by one person to end the life of another, at the request of the latter
- This action can take the form either of assisted suicide or active euthanasia
- Sometimes called physician assisted suicide which assumes a firm determination of the cause of death
Assisted Death
A form of congregate housing for older adults requiring long term care services that include meals, personal care, and scheduled nursing care
- Typically comprising private rooms or apartments, it encourages a degree of autonomy and independence in residents that is not provided for in nursing homes
Assisted Living
Suicide in which the person ending his or her own life is provided the means to do so (eg, a prescription) by another
Assisted Suicide
- A connection or relationship between items, particularly ideas, events, or feelings
- Established by experience and are fundamental to learning theory and behaviorism - The degree of statistical dependence between two or more phenomena
Association
Any of various areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved principally in sensory or motor representations but may be involved in integrative functions
Association Cortex
The process of acquiring new and enduring information via the formation of bonds between elements
- In different types of theories, these elements may be stimulus and response, mental representations of events, or elements in neural networks
- Historically, the associationistic theories of U.S. Psychologists Clark L. Hull (1884 - 1952) and Kenneth W. Spence (1907 - 1967) are contrasted with the non associative and cognitive theory of U.S. Psychologist Edward C. Tolman (1886 - 1959)
Associative Learning
Behavior in which mates are chosen on the basis of a particular trait or group of traits (eg, attractiveness, similarity of body size)
Assortative Mating
One or more conditions that need to be met in order for a statistical procedure to be fully justified from a theoretical perspective
- For example, analysis of variance assumes homogeneous of variance and independence of observations, among other criteria
- If they were to be violated to an extreme extent, the results would be invalid
Assumption
A chronic disorder in which intermittent inflammation and narrowing of the bronchial passages produces wheezing, gasping, coughing, and chest tightness
- Though the participating cause is usually an allergen, such as dust or pollen, environmental irritants, respiratory infection, anxiety, stress and other agents may produce or aggravate symptoms
Asthma
A visual disorder in which the light rays of a visual stimulus do not all focus at a single point on the retina due to uneven curvature of the cornea or lens
- The effect is an aberration or distortion of the visual image that makes it difficult to see fine detail
Astigmatism
A star shaped non neural central nervous system call (GLIA) with numerous extensions that run in all directions
- They provide structural support for the brain, are responsible for many homeostatic controls, and may isolate receptive surfaces
Astrocyte
Originally, a refuge for criminals
( from Greek “asylon”, sanctuary)
- From the 19th century, these terms were applied to mental institutions
- These names are now obsolete, discarded because of the emphasis on refuge rather than treatment
Asylum
Vulnerable to a disorder or disease
- Risk status for an individual is defined by genetic, physical, and behavioral factors or conditions
- For example, children of people with schizophrenia may be considered at risk for schizophrenia, and heavy smokers are at risk for emphysema and lung cancer
At Risk
Inability to perform coordinated voluntary movements
- May be seen as a symptom of various disorders, such as multiple sclerosis or cerebral palsy, or it can occur in isolation
- It can be heritable as acquired from injury or infection affecting the nervous system
- When due to damage to the cerebellum it is called cerebellar type and when due to loss of sensory feedback from the muscles and joints it is called sensory type
Ataxia
A common form of anteriorscierosis resulting from accumulations of lipids such as cholesterol on the inner walls of arteries and their hardening into atherosclerotic ( or atheromatous) plaques
Atherosclerosis
Lack of normal muscle tone
Atonia
Adenosine triphosphate, a nucleotide in living cells that is the source of chemical energy for biological processes
- A bond between two of its three component phosphate groups is easily split by a particular enzyme yielding energy when a cell requires it
ATP
A wasting away of the body or a body part, as from lack of nourishment, inactivity, degenerative disease, or normal aging
Atrophy
The close emotional bond between a human infant or a young non human animal and its parent figure or caregiver, developed as a step in establishing a feeling of security and demonstrated by calmness while in their presence
- Also denotes the tendency to form such strong bonds with certain other individuals in infancy as well as the tendency in adulthood to seek emotionally supportive relationships
Attachment
The characteristic way people relate to others in the context of intimate relationships which is heavily influenced by self worth and interpersonal trust
- Theoretically, an adult’s degree of attachment security is related to how well they bonded to others as children
- There are four distinct types:
1. Dismissive
2. Fearful
3. Preoccupied
4. Secure
Attachment Style
A theory that a) postulates an evolutionarily advantageous need, especially in primates, to form close emotional bonds with significant others’ specifically, a need for the young to maintain close proximity to and form bonds with their caregivers; and b) characterizes the different types of relationships between human infants and caregivers
- These relationships have been shown to affect the individual’s later emotional developmental and emotional stability
Attachment Theory
A state of awareness in which the senses are focused selectively on aspects of the environment and the central nervous system is in a state of readiness to respond to stimuli
- Because human beings do not have an infinite capacity to attend to everything - focusing on certain items at the expense of others - much of the research in this field is devoted to discerning which factors influence this and to understanding the neural mechanisms involved in the selective processing of information
Attention
A behavioral syndrome characterized by the persistent presence of six or more symptoms involving a) inattention (eg, failure to complete tasks or listen carefully, difficulty in concentrating, distractability) or b) impulsivity or hyperactivity (eg, restlessness, fidgeting, difficulty taking turns or staying seated, excessive talking, running about)
- The symptoms, which impair social, academic, or occupational functioning, appear before the age of 7 and are observed in more than one setting
Attention Deficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder
In statistics, a reduction in the estimated size of an effect because of errors of measurement
Attenuation
A version of the filter of attention proposing that unattended messages are attenuated ( ie, processed weakly) but not entirely blocked from further processing
- According to the theory, items in unattended channels of information have different thresholds of recognition depending on their significance to the individual
Attenuation Theory
A relatively enduring and general evaluation if an object, person, group, issue or concept on a scale ranging from negative to positive
- Provide summary evaluations of target objects and are often assumed to be derived from specific beliefs, emotions, and past behaviors associated with those objects
Attitude
The likelihood that an attitude will be automatically activated from memory on encountering the attitude object
- Assumed to depend on the strength of the associative link in memory between the representation of the object and the evaluation of the object: the stronger the memory link between the object and its evaluation, the more quickly will the attitude come to mind
Attitude Accessibility
The extent to which an attitude persists over time, resists change, influences information processing, and guides behavior
- Strong ones possess all four of these defining features whereas week ones lack these features
Attitude Strength
- In social psychology, the feeling of being drawn to one or more other individuals and desiring their company, usually but not necessarily because of a personal liking for them
- In environmental psychology, a quality affecting proximity relationships between individuals, usually reflecting such factors as their liking for each other
-Environmental influences, such as noise, heat, and humidity decrease this between pairs of individuals
Attraction
An inference regarding the cause of a person’s behavior or an interpersonal event
- Three dimensions are often used to evaluate people’s attributional styles, or characteristic tendencies when inferring such causes; the internal external dimension (whether they tend to attribute events to the self or to other factors), the stable unstable dimension (whether they tend to attribute events to enduring or transient causes), and the global specific dimension (whether they tend to attribute events to causes that effect many events or just a single event)
Attribution
The study of the process by which people ascribe motives to their own and other’s behavior
- the motives ascribed may either be internal and personal ( dispositional) or external and circumstantial (situational)
Attribution Theory
In experimentation and other research, dropout or loss of participation
Attrition
The influence on the behavior of the presence of bystanders
- In humans, performance is often improved when the action is simple and well learned (social facilitation) but may be inhibited when it is complicated, difficult to perform, or when the person believes the behavior might incur the audience’s disapproval ( social inhibition)
Audience Effect
An evaluation or review of the healthcare services proposed or rendered by a provider
Audit
Hearing: the perception of sound
Audition
Loss or impairment of the ability to recognize and understand the nature of verbal and nonverbal sounds
- Subtypes are distinguished on the basis of the type of auditory stimulus the person has difficulty recognizing, for example, environmental sounds such as a dog barking or keys jingling
Auditory Agnosia
The sensory area for hearing, located on the upper side of the temporal lobe of the cerebral cortex
- It receives and processes input from the medial geniculate nucleus in the thalamus
Auditory Cortex
The perception of sound in the absence of an auditory stimulus
- Hallucinations may, for example, be of accusatory or laudatory voices or of strange noises and other nonverbal sounds
- Occur frequently in schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders but may be associated with other conditions as well (eg, delirium, dementia)
Auditory Hallucination
The ability to identify the position and changes in position of sound sources based on acoustic information
Auditory Localization
A reduction in the ability to detect, discriminate, or recognize one sound ( the signal or target) due to the presence of another sound (the masker), measured as an increase in the detection threshold caused by the masker
- The ability of one sound to mask another has been used extensively to assess the frequency selectivity of the auditory system
Auditory Masking
The portion of the vestibulocochlear nerve concerned with the sense of hearing
- It originates in the cochlea, from which nerve fibers pass through several layers of nuclei in the brainsten to terminate predominantly in the auditory cortex
Auditory Nerve
The biological structures and processes responsible for hearing
- The auditory periphery, includes the external, middle, and inner ears and the auditory nerve
- Auditory structures of the brain, including the auditory cortex, constitute this central system
Auditory System
Pertaining to or perceived by the ear
Aural
A personality pattern characterized by strict adherence to highly simplified conventional values, an attitude of great deference to authority figures while demanding subservience from those regarded as lower in status, and hostility toward people who deviate from conventional moral prescriptions
Authoritarian Responsibility
A severe neurologically based pervasive developmental disorder characterized by markedly impaired social interactions and verbal and nonverbal communication; narrow interests, and competitive behavior
- Manifestations and features of the disorder appear before age 3 but vary greatly across children according to developmental level, language skills, and chronological age
- They may include a lack of awareness of the feelings of others, impaired ability to imitate, absence of social play, abnormal speech, abnormal nonverbal communication, and a preference for maintaining environmental sameness
Autistic Disorder
Any one of a group of disorders with an onset typically occurring during the preschool years and characterized by varying but often marked difficulties sin communication and social interaction
- The group includes pro type Autistic Disorder as well as Rett Syndrome, Asperger’s Disorder, and childhood disintegrative disorder
- This term is synonymous with pervasive developmental disorder but is now more commonly used, given its reflection of symptom overlap among the disorders
Autistic Spectrum Disorder
Vivid personal memories recalling the time and place of events and factual knowledge about oneself
Autobiographical Memory
A condition in which the body’s immune system fails to recognize its own tissues as “self” and attempts to reject its own cells
- It is a primary factor in development of rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus
Autoimmunity
An illusory perception of movement - often experienced by pilots flying at night - that occurs when fixating on a dim, stationary light source in the dark
Autokinesis
Instantaneous, habitual, but unconscious thoughts that affect a person’s mood and actions
- Helping clients become aware of the presence and impact of negative ones and then test their validity is a central task of cognitive therapy
Automatic Thoughts
The quality of a mental process that can be carried out rapidly and without effort or intention
Automaticity
The development of a skill or habit to a point at which it becomes routine and requires little if any conscious effort or direction
Automatization
In Pavlovian conditioning, a procedure in which the unconditioned stimulus is a mildly aversive stimulus such as an electric shock or a loud noise, and the conditioned response measured is an index of physiological arousal, usually an electrodermal measure such as skin conductance responses
- The conditioned stimulus is usually a simple visual or auditory stimulus presented for 5-10 seconds
Autonomic Conditioning
The portion of the nervous system innervating smooth muscle and glands, including the circulatory, digestive, respiratory, and reproductive organs
- It is divided into the sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system
- Autonomic responses typically involve changes in involuntary body functions, such as heart rate, salivation, digestion, perspiration, pupil size, hormone secretion, bladder contraction, and engorgement of the penis and clitoris
Autonomic Nervous System
In the theory of moral development proposed by Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget ( 1896 -1980), the stage during which the child, typically 10 years of age or order, eventually understands that rules and laws are not permanent, fixed properties of the world but rather are flexible, modifiable entities created by people
- The child gradually relies less on parental authority and more on individual and independent morality and learns that intentions, not consequences or the likelihood of punishment are important in determining the morality of an act
Autonomous Stage
A state of independence and self determination
Autonomy
The second of ErikSon’s eight stages of development, between the ages of one and a half and three years
- During this stage, children acquire a degree of self reliance and self confidence if allowed to develop at their own pace but may begin to doubt their ability to control themselves and their world if parents are over critical, over protective, or inconsistent
Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt
A molecule in the membrane of a presynaptic neuron that regulates the synthesis and release of a neurotransmitter by that neuron by monitoring how much the transmitter has been released and “telling” the neuron
Autoreceptor
A method of establishing operant performance that rewards any elicit responses
- It is most commonly used with pigeons
- Signals are presented, independently of behavior, on a response device ( in the case of pigeons, a pecking disk), which records the response and then immediately presents reinforcement
Autoshaping
Any chromosome that is not a sex chromosome
- A human normally has a total of 44 (arranged in 22 homologous pairs) in the nucleus of each body cell
Autosome
The process of making positive suggestions to oneself for such purposes as improving morale, inducing relaxation, or promoting recovery from illness
Autosuggestion
A type of agnosia involving loss or impairment of the ability to recognize (ie, point to) parts of one’s own or another person’s body
Autopagnosia
A common strategy for making judgements about likelihood of occurrence in which the individual bases such judgements on the amount of information held in his or her memory about the particular type of event: the more likely the event is judged to be
Availability Heuristic
The summated electrical responses of the brain to repeated presentations of the same stimulus
- Since any individual potential typically shows considerable random fluctuations, this technique is used to better distinguish the actual response from background “noise”
Average Evoked Potential
Physiological or emotional response indicating dislike for a stimulus
- It is usually accompanied by withdrawal from or avoidance of the objectionable stimulus
Aversion
The process by which a noxious or unpleasant stimulus is paired with an undesirable behavior
- This technique may be used therapeutically, for example, in the treatment of substance abuse
Aversive Conditioning
A form of racial prejudice felt by individuals who outwardly endorse egalitarian attitudes and values but nonetheless experience negative emotions in the presence of members of certain racial groups
Aversive Racism
The practice or an instance of keeping away from particular situations, environments, individuals, or things because of either:
A) The anticipated negative consequences of such an encounter
B) Anxious or painful feelings associated with these things or events
-Psychology brings several theoretical perspectives to this study; its use as a means of coping; its use as a response to fear or shame; and its existence as a component in anxiety disorders
Avoidance
A situation involving a choice between two equally objectionable alternatives
Avoidance Avoidance Conflict
The establishment of behavior that prevents or postpones aversive stimulation
- In a typical conditioning experiment, a buzzer is sounded, then a shock is applied to the subject (eg, a dog) until it performs a particular act (eg, jumping over a fence)
- After several trials, the dog jumps as soon as the buzzer sounds, avoiding the shock
Avoidance Conditioning
An adult interpersonal style characterized by a discomfort in being close to others
Avoidant Attachment Style
A personality disorder characterized by:
A) Hypersensitivity to rejection and criticism
B) A desire for uncritical acceptance
C) Social withdrawal in spite of a desire for affection and acceptance
D) Low self esteem
Avoidant Personality Disorder
Conscious realization, perception, or knowledge
Awareness
- In DSM IV TR, any of the five dimensions that are helpful for describing individual behavior and thus facilitate clinical assessment
- They are clinical disorders (Axis I), personality disorders and mental retardation (Axis II), general medical conditions (Axis III) psychosocial and environmental problems (Axis IV), and global assessment of functioning (axis V) - An imaginary line that bisects the body or an organ in a particular plane
- For example, the longer (cephalocaudal) runs in the median plane dividing the body into right and left halves - A system made up of interrelated parts, as in the hypothermic - pituitary _ adrenocortical system
- A fixed reference line in a coordinate system
Axis
