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Anatomy and physiology > Respiratory System > Flashcards

Respiratory System Flashcards

1
Q

“Breathing”; air moves in (inspiration) and out (expiration) of the lungs

A

Pulmonary ventilation (Respiratory system)

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2
Q

Oxygen diffuses from lungs to blood; carbon dioxide diffuses from blood to lungs

A

External respiration (Respiratory system)

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3
Q

Transport of respiratory gases

A

via the blood (cardiovascular system)

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4
Q

Oxygen diffuses from blood to tissues; carbon dioxide diffuses from tissues to blood

A

Internal respiration (cardiovascular system)

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5
Q

Anatomical Division

A

Upper respiratory system: nose to above the larynx

Lower respiratory system: larynx and everything below it

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6
Q

Physiological Division

A

Conducting Zone and Respiratory Zone

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7
Q

Conducting Zone

A

Respiratory passageways from nose to respiratory bronchioles

  • -Rigid conduits for air to reach gas exchange sites
  • –Conducting zone organs cleanse, humidify, and warm incoming air
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8
Q

Respiratory Zone

A

Gas exchange sites

–respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveoli

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9
Q

5 Nose functions

A

1) Airway for respiration
2) Moistens and warms air
3) Filters and cleans
4) Resonating chamber for speech
5) Olfactory (smell) receptors

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10
Q

Nose divided into

A

external nose and nose cavity

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11
Q

noses differ in size due to

A

different nasal cartilage

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12
Q

Nasal cavity is divided by

A

midline nasal septum (from septal cartilage anteriorly and skull bones posteriorly)

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13
Q

Nasal cavity is continuous posteriorly with

A

nasopharynx via posterior nasal apertures

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14
Q

separates nasal cavity from oral cavity

A

palate

  • -Hard palate=anterior, made from facial bones
  • -Soft palate=posterior, muscular
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15
Q

Nasal vestibule is superior to nostrils (nares)

A
  • -sweat and sebaceous glands, hair follicles

- -Hairs filter

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16
Q

Small patch that contains smell receptors

A

olfactory mucosa

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17
Q

Everywhere else; pseudostratified, ciliated columnar epithelium

A

respiratory mucosa

(goblet cells secrete mucus
Lamina propria contains seromucous nasal glands)

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18
Q
  • -Secrete mucus (traps junk)
  • -Serous cells secrete watery fluid with lysozyme (enzyme destroys bacteria)
  • -Defensins (which kill bacteria)
  • -1 L of fluids per day humidify
A

Seromucous glands

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19
Q

We get a drippy nose (Water condensation as we exhale also contributes)

A

cold weather, slow moving cilia, mucus to build up in the nasal cavity

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20
Q

(BLANK)

A

under the nasal epithelium warm incoming air

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21
Q

greatly increase mucosal surface area exposed to air

A

nasal conchae

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22
Q

why colds travel from nose to throat to chest

A

Nasal mucosa is continuous with mucosa of other respiratory passageways

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23
Q

Mucus formed drains into nasal cavity, which warms and humidifies
Lighten skull
Enhance voice

A

Paranasal sinuses

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24
Q

connects nasal and oral cavities to the larynx and esophagus

Composed of skeletal muscle and mucosa

A

Pharynx

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25
Q

traps and destroys pathogens from air

A

Pharyngeal tonsil (adenoids)

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26
Q

air only
Continuous with nasal cavity via posterior nasal apertures
Pseudostratified ciliated epithelium propels mucus

A

nasopharynx

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27
Q

Drain middle ear and allow middle ear pressure to equalize with atmospheric pressure
Open into lateral walls of nasopharynx

A

Pharyngotympanic (auditory) tubes

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28
Q

protect from infections spreading superiorly from the nasopharynx

A

tubal tonsils

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29
Q

Swallowing

A

Soft palate and uvula move superiorly, closing off nasopharynx

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30
Q

oropharynx

A

soft palate to epiglottis
air and food
Stratified squamous epithelium accommodates friction and chemical trauma from hot or spicy food

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31
Q

you can see in the back of your throat

A

Palatine tonsils

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32
Q

covers posterior surface of tongue

A

Lingual tonsil

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33
Q

Laryngopharynx

A 
Stratified squamous epithelium
air and food
Continuous with esophagus
posterior to larynx
Food => Esophagus 
Air => Larynx 
Food has“right of way”
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34
Q

Larynx (voice box)

3 major functions

A

1) open (“patent”) airway
2) switching mechanism to route air and food
3) Voice

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35
Q

larynx made of how many hyaline cartilages

A

8, connected with ligaments and membranes

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36
Q

Adam’s apple

A

Laryngeal prominence of the thyroid cartilage

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37
Q

Below vocal folds, larynx has pseudostratified, ciliated columnar epithelium

A

Cilia mucus up toward pharynx away from lungs

“clear our throat,” mucus up/out of larynx

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38
Q

elastic cartilage
open in breathing
When swallowing, larynx moves superiorly, and epiglottis covers it
Anything other than air in larynx triggers=cough reflex

A

Epiglottis

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39
Q

Mucosa-covered ligaments attach arytenoid and thyroid cartilages
Vibrate make sound

A

Vocal Cords

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40
Q

Vocal folds + opening between them

A

Glottis

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41
Q

Nosound production

Help close the glottis in swallowing

A

Vestibular glottis

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42
Q

During speech, glottis

A

opens and closes

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43
Q

Pitch changes with length and tension of vocal folds

A

Tenser=faster vibration=higher

looser=slower vibration=lower

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44
Q

loudness

A

strength of vibration

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45
Q

vocal folds only produce

A

buzzing sounds

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46
Q

Voice and speech quality are also determined by

A

pharynx, oral and nasal cavities, paranasal sinuses, tongue, soft palate, and lips

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47
Q

laryngitis

A

Inflammation of vocal folds, interferes with vibration

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48
Q

Trachea “windpipe”

A

larynx to bronchi
4 in long, ¾ in wide
Hyaline cartilage, connective tissue, and pseudostratified, ciliated epithelium
Cilia sweep mucus toward pharynx
Smoking inhibits and destroys cilia, so smokers cough to prevent mucus from accumulating in the lungs

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49
Q

Mucosa layer (ciliated) supported by submucosa, which (contains seromucous glands)
Submucosa (supported by 16-20 C-shaped hyaline cartilage rings)
The “open” part of the rings are located posteriorly expands with food

A

Trachea Anatomy

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50
Q

Smooth muscle helps expel mucus with greater force (e.g., coughing) reducing trachea’s diameter; 100 mph!!!

A

Trachealis

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51
Q

Cartilage is surrounded by

A

adventitia, the outermost connective tissue layer

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52
Q

Spar of cartilage on last tracheal cartilage
where trachea splits into two main bronchi
Mucosa is very sensitive; if anything touches it, violent coughing occurs

A

Carina

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53
Q

Bronchial tree branches about how many times?

A

23

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54
Q

Trachea divides into

A

right and left main (primary) bronchi

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55
Q

Trachea enters lung at the

A

hilum (medial depression)

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56
Q

inhaled objects tend to get stuck in which side

A

right side

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57
Q

< 1 mm diameter (and no cartilage)

A

bronchioles

58
Q

< 0.5 mm diameter
Cuboidal epithelium; sparse mucus and cilia
Macrophages in alveoli remove debris

A

terminal bronchioles

59
Q

Terminal bronchioles => Respiratory bronchioles =.> Alveolar ducts

A

Respiratory Zone

60
Q

Each individual air sac

A

alveolus

61
Q

cluster of alveoli

A

alveolar sac

62
Q

Lung contains 300 million alveoli, which are covered in

A

capillaries

63
Q

Type 1 alveolar cells

A

Simple squamous epithelial cells=>alveolar walls

64
Q

Respiratory membrane

A

Alveolar and capillary walls with fused basement membranes
0.5-μm thick blood-air barrier
gas exchange by diffusion (O2 into blood, and CO2 into alveoli)

65
Q

Type II alveolar cells

A

Cuboidal cells secrete fluids containing surfactant and antimicrobial proteins
Surface tension shrinks alveoli, so surfactant prevents alveoli from collapsing
Premature babies not enough surfactant; require a mechanical ventilator

66
Q

surfactant

A

(detergent-like substance that reduces surface tension)

67
Q

Alveolar pores

A
  • -Connect alveoli
  • -equalize pressure
  • -alternate route if bronchi collapsed or obstructed
68
Q

Alveolar macrophages

A

Gobble debris and pathogens on internal alveolar surfaces
Alveolar surfaces sterile because antimicrobial proteins and macrophages
Dead macrophages are swept up in cilia to pharynx swallow 2 million alveolar macrophages per hour!

69
Q

lungs combined weigh how much?

A

2.2 lbs.

70
Q

lung root

A 
lungs to heart and trachea via the hilum
blood vessels (pulmonary and bronchial), bronchi, lymphatic vessels, nerves that enter lungs
71
Q

left lung to accommodate the heart

A

cardiac notch

72
Q

Each lobe contains pyramid-shaped

A

bronchopulmonary segments

right: 10 segments
left: 8-10 segments

73
Q

Each segment (of bronchopulmonary segment) is served by its own

A

artery and vein and tertiary bronchus

Lung disease often limited to one or a few segments
Segments separated connective tissue; they can be removed without damaging nearby segments

74
Q

Pulmonary circulation

A

Oxygen-poor blood leaves heart (via pulmonary arteries) => exchanges gases in lungs => Returns to heart (via pulmonary veins)
Low pressure, high volume

75
Q

Supplies the lung tissue itself

A

Bronchial circulation

76
Q

Oxygen-rich blood from the aorta enters the lungs via

A

bronchial arteries

77
Q

Blood supplies all lung tissue except

A

alveoli

78
Q

Tiny bronchial veins return some blood to heart, but most of the blood actually returns via

A

pulmonary veins due to anastomoses between the two circulations

79
Q

pleurae

A

fold back on themselves
Prevents organs from interfering with each other
Prevents infections from spreading

80
Q

lung pressure relative to

A

atmospheric pressure

atmospheric (760 mmHg)
zero (760 mmHg)
positive pressure=greater than 760 mmHg
negative pressure=less than 760 mmHg

81
Q

Intrapulmonary (intra-alveolar) pressure (Ppul)

A

0 mmHg

82
Q

Intrapleural pressure (within pleural cavity, Pip)

A

-4 mmHg

83
Q

Pip must be negative relative to

A

Ppul

84
Q

Lung collapse (atelectasis) occurs when:

A
  • -plugged bronchiole (ex: pneumonia)

- -Associated alveoli absorb all of their air and collapse

85
Q

Air enters pleural cavity (BLANK) due to chest wound or rupture of visceral pleura

A

pneumothorax

86
Q

the most important muscle contributing to the change in volume of the thoracic cavity.

A

diaphragm

87
Q

Expiration is mostly a passive process that depends on

A

lung elasticity and muscle relaxation.

88
Q

Amount of air that moves in/out of lungs with each breath (500 mL)

A

tidal volumes

89
Q

Forcibly inhaled volume beyond tidal

A

Inspiratory reserve volume

90
Q

Forcibly exhaled volume beyond tidal

A

Expiratory reserve volume

91
Q

Amount of air in lungs that cannot be exhaled; prevents lung collapse

A

Residual volume

92
Q

Anatomical dead space

A

all 500 mL of the air in each breath is “usable” because 150 mL remains in the conducting zone and does not contribute to gas exchange in alveoli

93
Q

alveoli collapse or are blocked by mucus

A

contribute to total dead space

94
Q

obstructive pulmonary diseases

A

in which airway resistance increases

–cannot exhale 80% of vital capacity in 1 second

95
Q

restrictive diseases

A

in which total lung capacity is reduced

–Patients can exhale 80% of VC in 1 second, but VC is lower

96
Q

Normal respiratory rate (12-16 breaths/min)

A

Eupnea

97
Q

amount of air reaching your alveoli, breathe slowly and deeply

A

alveolar ventilation

98
Q

slide 41

A

yes

99
Q

Alveoli have less O2 and more CO2 and H2O than air. Why?

A
  • -O2 goes into blood and CO2 comes out of blood)
  • -Humidification
  • -Mixing of gas as we inhale and exhale
100
Q

External respiration (pulmonary gas exchange) relies on three factors

A

1) Partial pressure gradients and gas solubilities
2) Thickness and surface area of respiratory membrane
3) Ventilation-perfusion coupling (See Slide #45)
Ventilation (amount of gas reaching alveoli) is matched to perfusion (blood flow in pulmonary capillaries)

101
Q

What determines areolar diameter?

A

Po2

102
Q

PO2 is low, arterioles constrict, bypassing the alveoli

A

PO2 is high, arterioles dilate and fill with blood

103
Q

PCO2 is high, bronchioles dilate to eliminate the gas

A

PCO2 is low, bronchioles constrict

104
Q

factors influnence shape of hemoglobin and change its ability to bind to O2

A

temperature increase,
–CO2, or H+ decreases hemoglobin’s ability to carry O2 (which helps hemoglobin unload O2) in the tissues

This makes sense because in the tissues where active metabolism is occurring

  • -higher temp
  • -CO2 =waste product
  • -H+ acid is being produced as CO2 dissolves in plasma
105
Q

hypoxia

A

Inadequate oxygen to body tissues

Skin turns bluish (cyanosis) when O2 saturation is below 75%

106
Q

Anemic hypoxia

A

Lack of RBCs

107
Q

Ischemic hypoxia

A

Blocked circulation

108
Q

Tissues cannot use O2 (even though supply is adequate) due to poison, such as cyanide

A

Histotoxic hypoxia

109
Q

Reduced arterial PO2

– cause: pulmonary disease reduces ventilation, breathing air with little O2, or carbon monoxide poisoning

A

Hypoxemic hypoxia

110
Q

CO2 transported to the lungs (3 ways)

A

1) Dissolved in plasma (10%)
2) Bound to hemoglobin (20%)
CO2 bound to hemoglobin protein
3) As bicarbonate ions in plasma (70%)

111
Q

carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffer system

A

CO2 dissolves in plasma => Enters RBCs => Converted to carbonic acid (H2CO3) by enzyme (carbonic anhydrase) => Acid is unstable and breaks down to H+ + HCO3- (bicarbonate)
Reaction: CO2 + H2O ⇌ H2CO3 ⇌ H+ + HCO3-

112
Q

Chloride shift

A

Via facilitated diffusion, bicarb ions from RBC into plasma, and Cl- ions take their place inside RBCs (chloride-bicarbonate antiporter)

process reversed in lungs

113
Q

Generates the respiratory rhythm

Thought to involve reciprocal inhibition of neuronal networks

A

Ventral respiratory group (VRG)

114
Q

Opioids and alcohol turn this part of the brain stem “off”  Breathing stops

A

medulla oblongata

115
Q

Integrates input from peripheral stretch and chemoreceptors and sends info to VRG

A

Dorsal respiratory group (DRG)

116
Q

Pontine respiratory centers smooth inspiration/expiration transitions
Fine-tunes breathing rhythm set by VRG

A

Pons

117
Q

Located in brain stem

A

central chemoreceptors

118
Q

: Located in aortic arch and carotid arteries

A

Peripheral chemoreceptors

119
Q

Chemoreceptors monitor

A

O2, CO2, and H+ (i.e., pH)

120
Q

cannot cross blood-brain barrier, so a drop in pH is detected by peripheral chemoreceptors

Blood that is too acidic can be caused by too much CO2, exercise (lactic acid), or diabetes

Regardless of the cause, increased breathing eliminates CO2 (and carbonic acid), raising pH

A

H+

121
Q

Strong emotions and pain can change breathing

A

Hypothalamus

122
Q

consciously control our breathing

A

cerebral cortex

123
Q

Cerebral motor cortex sends signals to motor neurons that stimulate respiratory muscles
Can’t hold your breath forever

A

high levels of CO2 cause brain stem to initiate breathing

124
Q

Pulmonary irritants trigger

A

bronchoconstriction, coughing, sneezing

125
Q

Stretch receptors (during breathing) tell the medulla to

A

stop inspiration

126
Q

removes excess CO2, which:

  • -Constricts cerebral blood vessels, causing dizziness or fainting
  • -Increases pH, tingling and muscle spasms due to blood Ca2+ levels falling
A

Hyperventilation

127
Q

Why swimmers shouldn’t hyperventilate before swimming

A

PCO2 can be lowered to such an extent that it takes a while before the brain decides to initiate breathing again

128
Q

Debunking junk: oxygen masks for athletes

A

During exercise, ventilation and perfusion are still (nearly) perfectly matched, which means respiratory functions are efficient

129
Q

Results in an irreversible decrease in ability to force air out of lungs

A

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)

130
Q

COPD symptoms: Dyspnea

A

Difficult or labored breathing (“shortness of breath”) that gets progressively worse

131
Q

COPD symptoms: Coughing and frequent pulmonary infections

A

yes

132
Q

COPD symptoms: Hypoventilation

A

Insufficient ventilation to provide O2 and reduce CO2 Respiratory acidosis & hypoxemia

133
Q

Other COPD symptoms:

A

emphysema and chronic bronchitis

134
Q

Enlargement of alveoli and destruction of alveolar walls; lungs lose elasticity; air trapped in lungs and breathing very difficult

A

Emphysema

135
Q

Chronic production of excessive mucus due to lung irritation; infection more likely because bacteria in stagnant mucus

A

Chronic bronchitis

136
Q

Reversible obstructive disease with acute episodes and symptom-free periods

A

Asthma

137
Q

Asthma symptoms

A
  • -Coughing, wheezing, dyspnea, chest tightness
  • -Allergic asthma is most common, which is mediated by IgE antibodies
  • -Inflammation persists even during symptom-free periods
  • -Allergens trigger bronchospasms (sudden constriction of bronchioles)
138
Q

Tuberculosis symptoms

A

Mycobacterium tuberculosis
1/3 of the world population is infected, but most don’t develop disease
Most people form tubercles contain bacteria
In others, bacteria “break free” and cause active infection

139
Q

leading cancer killer
More deaths than prostate, breast, and colorectal cancer combined
About 90% of cases are due to smoking
Most patients die within 1 year of diagnosis
5-year survival is 17%

A

lung cancer

140
Q

Adenocarcinoma

A

40% of cases

Cancer arises from epithelial glands of bronchi

141
Q

Squamous cell carcinoma

A

25-30% of cases

Cancer arises from bronchi epithelia

142
Q

Small-cell carcinoma

A

20% of cases
arise from neuroendocrine cells
release hormones=>other problems

Anatomy and physiology (21 decks)

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