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A-level Psychology AQA > Research methods > Flashcards

Research methods Flashcards

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1
Q

experimental method

A

changing independent variable to measure effect on dependent variable

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2
Q

aim

A

a statement outlining the purpose of an investigation

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3
Q

hypothesis

A

a clear, testable statement stating relationship between variables being used

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4
Q

directional hypothesis

A

states the direction of the difference or relationship

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5
Q

levels of the IV (independent variable)

A

to test the effect of the IV, there needs to be different conditions. different conditions are known as levels

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6
Q

operationalisation of variables

A

the process of defining variables in a way which makes them measurable i.e. referring to specific observable behaviours.

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7
Q

extraneous variables

A

any variable that isn’t the IV that will affect results if not controlled. two types: participant and situational variables

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8
Q

confounding variable

A

an EV that affects independent and dependent variables, it’s difficult to tell if results are due to CV or a IV

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9
Q

demand characteristics

A

cue from a researcher which might affect participants behaviour. please-u effect = acting in a way to please researcher. screw-u effect = acting in a way they think will sabotage the study

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10
Q

investigator effect

A

anything investigator does which has an effect on participants performance in a study other than intended

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11
Q

randomisation

A

the use of chance in order to control for the effects of bias when designing materials and deciding the order of conditions

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12
Q

standardisation

A

using exactly the same formulised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study

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13
Q

laboratory experiment

A

conducted in a highly controlled environment

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14
Q

evaluation of lab experiments

A

+ high control over EVs and CVs so you know that any change in DV is due to IV, giving it high internal validity
+ replication is more possible because of amount of control, making it more valid
- artificial so lack generalisability and have low external validity
- pts are aware they’re being tested so may act unusually
- don’t represent the everyday experience, low mundane realism

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15
Q

field experiment

A

an experiment conducted in the participants’ natural environment. natural, more everyday setting

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16
Q

evaluation of field experiments

A

+ higher mundane realism
+ pts may be unaware they’re being studied, more valid + authentic behaviour, high external validity
- no control of EVs and CVs so difficult to establish link between IV and DV
- precise replication is often impossible
- ethical issues of having no consent from pts - invasion of privacy?

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17
Q

natural experiment

A

no control over the IV and can’t change it.
the IV is always natural but not always the setting - could be in a lab.
DV may also be naturally occurring.

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18
Q

evaluation of natural experiments

A

+ allows us to study real world issues as they occur, high external validity
- naturally occurring events are rare, reducing opportunities for research, also limiting scope for generalising
- pts may not be randomly allocated, so less sure if IV affected DV
- if conducted in lab = lacks realism
- demand characteristics may be an issue

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19
Q

quasi-experiment

A

the IV is based on existing differences (e.g. age or gender) so can’t be controlled

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20
Q

random sampling

A

everyone has an equal chance of being chosen. everyone should have random numbers assigned to them and chosen using a random selection method

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21
Q

systematic sampling

A

a systematic formula is used – every 50th person is picked from the phone book/school register

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22
Q

stratified sampling

A

different strata or subgroups are identified in the target population. what percentage of the whole target population does each sub group form? a random sample is taken from each subgroup so that the sample has the
same percentages as the target population

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23
Q

opportunity sampling

A

the researcher selects people from the target population who happens to be there at the time, and who are willing and able to take part.

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24
Q

volunteer sampling

A

asking for people to volunteer if they are able to take part in the study

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25
Q

what is the purpose of a sample?

A

to be representative of a target population, meaning that the results can be generalised to the whole population

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26
Q

what are the 6 types of observation?

A

naturalistic, controlled, covert, overt, participant, and non-participant

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27
Q

naturalistic vs controlled observation

A

naturalistic is observed in environment where behaviour would normally occur. controlled is in a structured environment where some variables are controlled

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28
Q

covert vs overt observation

A

covert is when participants behaviour is watched without consent. overt is with consent

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29
Q

participant vs non-participant observation

A

participant is when the researcher becomes a member of the group they are observing. non-participant is when the research remains separate from the group whose behaviour they are watching.

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30
Q

evaluation of natural vs controlled observation

A

natural observations have high ecological validity + external validity, they can be generalised but they are difficult to replicate. controlled observations can be repeated to check reliability but they’re not as easy to generalise

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31
Q

evaluation of covert vs overt observations

A

covert observations don’t have issue of demand characteristics, meaning data collected has higher internal validity, but are less ethical as participants can’t give informed consent. overt are more ethically acceptable but demand characteristics can make behaviour unrealistic

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32
Q

evaluation of participant vs non-participant observations

A

participant studies mean that the researcher can get more in-depth data as they are in close proximity but they do risk ‘going native’ and losing objectivity. non-participant studies allow researcher to maintain objectivity but lose the chance of more in depth data

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33
Q

what is the British Psychological Society (BPS) and what do they do?

A

representative body that promotes excellence and ethical practice in psychological studies

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34
Q

when do ethical issues occur?

A

when there is a conflict between the rights of participants and the goals of the study

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35
Q

what are the 4 main ethical concerns?

A

informed consent, confidentiality, deception and protection from harm

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36
Q

informed consent

A

made aware of the aims and procedure of the study and their right to withdraw. in form of a consent letter, if participant is under 14, parent/guardian has to give consent

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37
Q

evaluation points of informed consent

A
  • explaining exact aims can make studies meaningless and artificial.
  • naturalistic observations don’t need consent as they are in a public area where you can expect to be watched.
  • Menges (1973) found 97% of American studies hadn’t given participants all information
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38
Q

deception

A

deliberately misleading or withholding information. participants cant give informed consent if deceived. BPS allow some deception if scientifically justified. they can also obtain general consent with knowledge that deception will take place

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39
Q

protection from harm

A

risk of harm to participants can’t be higher than risk of their everyday lives. counselling should be offered if subjected to embarrassment or stress. a debrief should also be given after studies finish.

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40
Q

protection from harm evaluation

A

it’s difficult to accurately assess, and predict what participants will find distressing or embarrassing.

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41
Q

confidentiality

A

right to privacy, meaning personal information can’t be shared. all data collected should not use names. pts can’t be identifiable from data published (e.g. from characteristics, place, time). pts should be warned if data isn’t going to be completely anonymous

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42
Q

pilot study

A

small scale trial run of study to check procedure and make final tweaks - prevents money being wasted on research that has too many issues

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43
Q

single-blind procedure

A

participants are unaware of the aim + conditions. this controls demand characteristics

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44
Q

double-blind procedure

A

researcher is also unaware of the aim + conditions. this reduces potential bias

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45
Q

control condition

A

sets a baseline with no manipulation of the independent variable. it can be used to compare to the experimental condition to know the effects are due to the IV rather than other variables

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46
Q

what are the two types of observational design?

A

structured or unstructured.

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47
Q

what is an unstructured observational design?

A

writing down everything observed, rich in detail, good for small groups

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48
Q

what is a structured observational design?

A

selecting observational categories that are being looked for (operationalisation), sampling, then recording behavior either each time it is observed or which behavior occurs in a pre-decided time frame.

49
Q

inter-observer reliability

A

single observers may miss certain behaviors or only record ones that fit their hypothesis. to fix this, observers should familiarize themselves with categories and also discuss any differences between amount of behaviors observed. can be calculated to give exact figure

50
Q

structured vs unstructured evaluation

A

+ structured makes recording of observations easier and more systematic
+ structured produces numerical data = easier to analyse and do statistical tests
+ structured means less risk of observer bias
- unstructured provide more rich data with more detail

51
Q

behavioral categories evaluation

A

+ makes data collection more structured and objective
- must not; require further interpretation, be ambiguous, be too broad, overlap with each other

a pilot study should be conducted to check validity of these categories.

52
Q

what are the three different types of experimental designs?

A

independent groups, matched pairs and repeated measures

53
Q

what is independent groups?

A

separate different groups of people participate in each condition of the experiment

54
Q

evaluation of independent groups

A

+ no order effects and less chance of demand characteristics
+ relatively easy to organise
- participant variables are more likely (different skills/traits can affect results)

55
Q

what is repeated measures?

A

all participants complete all conditions of experiment

56
Q

evaluation of repeated measures

A

+ no participant variables
+ fewer participants needed to carry out experiment
- order effects and demand characteristics

57
Q

what is matched pairs?

A

participants only take part in one condition of the experiment
but they are matched to the participants in the other
condition(s) for all key participant variables.

58
Q

evaluation of matched pairs

A

+ reduces participant variables
+ no order effects and less chance of demand characteristics
- matching takes time and can be difficult
- some participant variables could still be overlooked

59
Q

how can independent groups be improved?

A

randomly assigning which groups complete each condition, reduces likelihood of participant differences through researcher bias

60
Q

how can repeated measures be improved?

A

counter-balancing - splitting group in half to get half participants to do tasks in opposite order to other half of participants. reduces order effects and demand characteristics

61
Q

self report techniques

A

interviews and questionnaires

62
Q

acquiescence bias

A

tendency to agree no matter content of the question (following a pattern in answers on questionnaire)

63
Q

social desirability bias

A

presenting in positive light

64
Q

evaluation of questionnaires

A

+ qualitative and quantitative data
+ quick and cheap
+ large sample
- social desirability bias
- sample bias to people who are willing and able to complete
- possibility of misunderstanding a question

65
Q

evaluation of interviews

A

+ rich and detailed information
+ chance to ask for clarification if misunderstood question
+ qualitative and quantitative data
- time consuming
- demand characteristics
- not appropriate for all topics or all people

66
Q

types of closed questions

A

fixed choice questions
likert scales (agreement on numerical scale)
rating scales (value that represents strength of feeling - e.g. enjoyment)

67
Q

designing an interview

A

you need a:
standardised procedure to reduce researcher bias
notes being taken or video being recorded
one to one or group
quiet place
list of questions/topics to cover
neutral questions at first to establish rapport and allow to relax
reminder of right to withdraw and confidentiality

68
Q

what to avoid when writing questions

A
  1. leading questions
  2. double-barelled questions
  3. double-negatives
  4. emotive language
  5. overuse of jargon
69
Q

correlation

A

relationship between two variables where changes in one variable go along with changes in the other

70
Q

positive correlation

A

as one goes up so does the other

71
Q

negative correlation

A

as one goes up, the other goes down

72
Q

coefficient of correlation

A

-1 is perfect negative correlation
1 is perfect positive correlation

73
Q

evaluation of correlation

A

+ don’t require manipulation of variables
+ can make predictions that can be tested in experiment
+ high ecological validity, results come from real life
- can’t show cause and effect
- don’t reflect curvilinear relationships
- extraneous variables could be causing changes

74
Q

quantitative data

A

represents how much, how long, how many, etc. there are of something, measured in numbers or quantities (objective)

75
Q

qualitative data

A

can’t be readily counted, expressed in words, may include description of thoughts, feelings, and opinions (subjective)

76
Q

evaluation of quantitative data

A

+ allows for statistical analysis and comparisons to be made
+ objective and scientific data so easier to establish reliability of results
- numbers produced without context as to why behaviour happened
- reducing people to numbers (not taking experience into account)

77
Q

evaluation of qualitative data

A

+ in-depth and rich so increases external validity of findings
+ helps us understand why people behave in a particular way
- interpreting data is up to researcher bias and subjectivity
- difficult to interpret and make statistical comparisons

78
Q

primary data

A

original data collected specifically for the purpose of the investigation

79
Q

secondary data

A

data collected by someone other than the person who is conducting the research

80
Q

meta-analysis

A

large scale combination and analysis of secondary data from many studies with the same research questions

81
Q

evaluation of primary data

A

+ designed so it fits the aim and hypothesis of the study
- lengthy and therefore expensive process to collect the data

82
Q

evaluation of secondary data

A

+ easier and cheaper to access someone else’s data
- may not fit needs of the study or may be of poor quality (lacking temporal validity or being incomplete)

83
Q

evaluation of meta-analysis

A

+increases validity due to large sample size
- prone to publication bias, researchers don’t select studies with negative or non-significant results (file drawer problem)

84
Q

things to do when drawing graphs

A
  • clearly label axis
  • draw with pencil and ruler
  • linear scales
  • take up as much space as possible
  • title explaining graph
85
Q

what type of data do line graphs show and what is their purpose?

A

continuous data that isn’t grouped, and they track the changes over periods of time and compare data

86
Q

what type of data do bar charts show and what is their purpose?

A

discrete data and allows to compare the categories

87
Q

what type of data do scatter graphs show and what is their purpose?

A

discrete and correlational data, allows observation of relationship between two variables

88
Q

what type of data do histograms show and what is their purpose?

A

continuous grouped data that has to put in data and allows us to see distribution of data

89
Q

one-tailed test

A

directional hypothesis

90
Q

two-tailed test

A

non-directional hypothesis

91
Q

null hypothesis

A

no differences between conditions

92
Q

the three questions to ask to know what statistical test to use?

A
  1. test of difference or correlation?
  2. experimental design (related or unrelated)
  3. type of data (nominal, ordinal, interval)
93
Q

validity

A

measure of truth and accuracy, also about generalisation

94
Q

internal validity

A

clear cause and effect

95
Q

external validity

A

able to be generalised

96
Q

ecological validity

A

how generalisable the settings of the study are to real life settings

97
Q

mundane realism

A

how realistic the stimuli is to real life

98
Q

reliability

A

how consistently a method measures something, the ability to repeat and obtain the same results

99
Q

external reliability

A

consistency when repeated

100
Q

internal reliability

A

items are consistent within themselves (questions in a questionnaire)

101
Q

ways to increase validity

A

test-retest, replicate, split half, inter observer

102
Q

test-retest

A

interviews + questionnaires, same person different occasions, correlated and greater than 0.8 -> reliable

103
Q

split half

A

compare half qs with other half of qs to check similar difficulty

104
Q

replicate

A

should obtain same results when repeated if standardised procedures are used

105
Q

inter observer

A

compare observation between observers, check interpretation of behaviour is same, helps overcome researcher bias

106
Q

face validity

A

looks promising that tool measures what it’s supposed to

107
Q

population validity

A

how representative sample is of the population

108
Q

temporal validity

A

if research findings apply across time

109
Q

concurrent validity

A

if measure is in agreement with pre-existing measures to measure the same thing

110
Q

triangulation

A

gathering evidence from different sources

111
Q

interpretive validity

A

researcher has to use direct quotes to show their interpretation matches participants reality.

112
Q

why are psychological reports written?

A

for clear communication between researchers, in a conventional manner to aid understanding

113
Q

order of sections

A

abstract, introduction, method, results, discussion, references

114
Q

economical implications of psychological research

A
  1. gender pay gap increased/reduced
  2. burden on NHS
  3. more/less taxation
  4. less sick pay
  5. increased productivity
  6. cutting edge research = funding and investment from overseas
115
Q

why is peer review important?

A

Prevent plagiarism, methodology, validity, integrity, significance

116
Q

evaluation of peer review

A

+ helps prevent scientific fraud
+ £5.8 bil spent by gov. on research due to high research ratings
+ promotes accurate information
- conflict of interest, researchers may negatively review others work
- file drawer effect, only statistically significant results are published
- slow process

117
Q

example of importance of peer review

A

Andrew Wakefield claimed MMR vaccine caused autism in children, they were false claims with no evidence yet people believed him and therefore many children died

118
Q

statistical tests mnemonic

A

Simon Cowell Curiously Wants More Singers Receiving Unanimous Praise

119
Q

questions to ask when deciding stat test

A
  1. correlation or difference
  2. type of test (related or unrelated)
  3. type of data (nominal, ordinal or interval)

A-level Psychology AQA (77 decks)

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