Research - Exam 1 Flashcards
Epistemology
The study of the nature- foundation of knowledge (ways of acquiring knowledge)
Methods of tenacity, authority, intuition, and science
Empiricism
Knowledge is gained through experience and evidence. Inductive reasoning. Helps to refute a theory
Rationalism
Knowledge gained through the exercise of logical thought. Helps to generate a theory
Basic research
Development of knowledge. Broad of knowledge, foundation for dev of practical solutions. Theoretical support.
Applied research
Solve problem of immediate consequence. Clinical research
2 types pf empirical research
- Descriptive: differences, dev trends or relations among factors thru objective measures (tests, surveys, naturalistic observations)
- Experimental: causation thru observation of the consequent effects of manipulating certain events or characteristics under controlled conditions
Theory
Explainable, parsimonious and testable
Statement to explain phenomena
Formal representation of data to ID and outline cause/effect relationships
Ultimate aim of science
Evidence based practice (EBP)
External Scientific Evidence
Clinical Expertise/ Expert opinion
Client/ Patient/ Caregiver Perspectives
PICO question
Population, Intervention, Comparison, Outcome.
E.g: for individuals who have a SSD, if they receive 30 minutes of tx sessions 5 days/wk for 2 weeks instead of 30 mins individual sessions once a week for 10 wks, will their artic, sounds errors or intelligibility improve?
Systematic Review
vs.
Individual Studies
SR: assessment of other research to figure out if its valid or not
IS: use continuum to determine quality
Simple Random Sampling
Subjects in a study considered for setting, values of the IV, times of measurement, stimulus materials, measurement procedures
Cluster Sampling
All subjects are members of a group that was selected at random
Stratified Random Sampling
Population first divided into categorized subgroups, strata, from which subjects are randomly drawn
Quality levels of research
Ia) well-designed meta-analysis or > 1 RCT
Ib) well-designed Randomized control study
IIa) well-designed control study w/o randomization
IIb) well-designed quasi-experimental study
III) well-designed non- experimental study. e.g: correlated case studies
IV) Expert committee report, consensus conference, clinical experience of respected authorities
Randomization
the assignment of subjects to experimental and control groups on a random basis
TX efficacy
when improvement in client performance can be shown to be derived from tx rather than extraneous factors, real and reproducible and clinically important
4 steps to EBP
- Forming PICA Questions
- Finding the evidence
- Assessing the evidence
- Making the decision
Divergent
v.
Convergent writing
D: flowery, not the point
C: straight to the point, avoids ambiguity- want to use!
Evidence must be…
Relevant
Sufficient
Trustworthy (veracity)
Arguments by: Example Credible authority Analogy Induction Deduction
E: observation. less trustworthy
CA: supplement of other verifiable evidence
A: if 2 things similar in some respects, likely to be similar in another
I: premise offer support for proposition
D: proposition follows from premise
Fallacies
- reason
- distraction
- induction
Arguments are invalid when the premises are incorrect or unsupported, or when there is an error in logical reasoning
- reason: belief, emotion and popularity
- distraction: inclusion of irrelevant info that diverts the reader from the point
- induction: use of an unfounded stereotype, underrepresented sample or poor analogy
Research questions should…… (3)
Clearly ID the variables under consideration
Specifies the population being studied
Implies the possibility of empirical testing
Quantitative Research
Measurable; data; formal
manipulate variables
Independent V. Dependent variables
I: cause- conditions that cause a change in behavior
D: effect- the behavior that is changed- may be > 1
Confounding Variable
3rd or mediator
Can adversely, affect relation between the independent and dependent variable
May show false correlation
Active variable
v.
Attribute Variable
Active: can be manipulated
Attribute: cannot be manipulated
Continuous variable
v.
Categorical variable
Continuous: measured on continuum that reflects the rank ordering of values of variables
Categorical: discrete- values categorized and named and have no numerical value
4 characteristics of those who conduct experiments
1) start w/ purpose that allows them to know when to observe certain behavior
2) control occurrence of events and observe changes
3) Can repeat observations w/ same conditions
4) Can manipulate conditions to measure effects of these manipulations
Bivalent, Multivalent, and Parametric Experiment
B: 2 variables (1 Iv, 1 Dv); intensity of 2 tones
M: several values of Iv on the Dv; broader pic of relationship between Iv and Dv
P: simultaneous effects of > 1 Iv on Dv - second Iv= parameter variable
Descriptive Research
Observes group differences. dev trends, relationships among measurable variables
Provides empirical picture
attribute variables
Descriptive Research Variables
Classification variable similar to Iv
criterion variables similar to Dv
Predictor variable similar to Iv
Predicted variables similar to Dv (attribute var.)
SLP research typically uses combo of experimental and decriptive
Types of Descriptive Research (5)
Comparative Developmental Correlational Survey Retrospective
Types of developmental research (3)
Cross-sectional: varying age groups
Longitudinal: follows same subject over time
Semi-longitudinal: divide total age span into several overlapping age spans
Types of Group Research Designs
Between- Subjects: comparison of the avg behavior of one group to the “average” of another group
Within- Subjects: compare the avg behavior of a group of subjects in 2 different conditions
Mixed: both types
Internal Validity
v.
External validity
Internal: answers research question and provides evidence by controlling variance enough to provide a clear picture of the relationship btwn IV and DV
2 threats to internal Validity
Researcher Bias: reflexive about own voice/ perspective
Researcher Reactivity: designed account for influence of researcher on participants behavior
Hawthorne Effect
Act differently because they know they’re being watched
Pilot Research
Small number of subjects
Not meant for publication
Trial run to assess feasibility
Deming cycle
Plan: est. what should be accomplished
Do: attempt to effect change
Study: check data to analyze results
Act: compare outcomes w/ targets/ goals
Treatment Efficiency:
Cost- benefit analysis
Analysis of tx intensity or frequency leading to a maximum
Treatment Outcomes Research (5 phases)
I: est. tx effects exists in clinical env.
II: studies to determine appropriateness of intervention, hypothesis. driven
III: test efficacy of tx approach
IV: studies to determine if tx is effective in the clinic
V: examines modifications requiring for giving intervention in cost-effective manner
Comparative Research
used to measure the behavior of two or more types of subjects at one point in time to draw conclusions about the similarities or differences between them
Developmental Research
used to measure changes in behavior or characteristics of people over time, usually to examine the influence of maturation or aging
Correlational Research
Used to study the relationships among two or more variables by examining the degree to which changes in one variable correspond with or can be predicted from variations in another
Retrospective Research
when investigators examine data already on file before the formulation of the research questions
Qualitative Research
used to study culture and the patterns of behavior that underline social relationships.
Understanding the thoughts, values, attitudes, perceptions, and intentions of individuals and groups
Observational Research
is conducted in a purposeful, deliberate and systematic manner
Interview Research
for of face-to-face interaction. esta. a context and solicits a response
Narrative Research
derived from stories, interviews, written journals, and other written documents, which forms data set in naturalistic inquiry
Mixed-method research
combines qualitative and quantitative investigative techniques.
IV History
events that may have occured between tx sessions
IV Maturation
change in subjects themselves
plays a role in long-term studies
IV Reactive Pretest
an issue for studies using pre-test and post-test designs. The effect of taking a test may have on scores achieved on subsequent administration of the same test
IV Instrumentation
changes in the calibration of a measuring instrument or changes in he observers or scores used may produce change in the obtained measurements
IV Statistical regression
phenomenon which subjects who are selected on the basis of atypically low or high scores change on a subsequent test so that their scores are now somewhat better or somewhat poorer that they were
IV Differential Subject Selection
differences in subjects in experimental and control groups may account for tx effects rather than the tx itself
IV Attrition
experimental mortality
IV Interaction of Factors
possible interaction effects of two or three jeopardizing threats
