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SAT II BIOLOGY > Reproduction & Development > Flashcards

Reproduction & Development Flashcards

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1
Q

Binary Fission

A
  • Prokaryotes, algae, bacteria
  • Key step - DNA replication
  • Only 1 chromosome in a single long circular DNA;
  • Gets attached to cell membrane and replicated as the cell grows
  • DNAs are drawn apart when cell grows and adds more membrane between the DNAs
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2
Q

Conjugation

A
  • primitive form of sexual reproduction used by bacteria
  • move genes between cells by exchanging a circular extrachromosomal DNA with eachother
  • individuals exchange genetic information
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3
Q

Transduction

A
  • viruses that infect bacteria can accidentally carry bacterial genes with them into a new cell they infect
  • introduce new genes into bacteria
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4
Q

Cell Cycle

A

Interphase

  • Stage G1 - intense biochemical and biosynthetic activity - growth - cell doubles in size - new organelles are produced
  • Stage S - synthesis - DNA replication - chromosomes each consist of 2 identical sister chromatids held by centromere, ends are called telomeres
  • Stage G2 - prepares for mitosis

**Stage M (Mitosis and Cytokinesis) **

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5
Q

Advantages of Asexual reproduction

A
  1. enables animals living in isolation to reproduce without a mate
  2. creates many offsprings quickly
  3. no expenditure of energy to maintain complex reproductive systems or hormonal cycles
  4. when the environment is stable and favorable
  5. mechanism for perpetuating primitive organisms and plants, especially in times of low population density
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6
Q

Budding

A
  • unequal division of cytoplams, but equal division of the nucleus
  • yeast, hydra
  • parent cell forms smaller daughter cell that sprouts off with less cytoplasm
  • the daughter organism becomes independent and is released
  • splitting off new idnividuals from existing ones
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7
Q

Parthenogenesis

A
  • Asexual Reproduction (in animals)
  • egg develops without fertilization by sperm
  • occurs naturally in bees
    • fertilized eggs develop into worker bees and queen bees
    • unfertilized eggs become male drone bees
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8
Q

Regeneration

A

• Asexual Reproduction

Ability to regrow a missing body part

  • Fragmentation – single parent breaks into parts that regenerate into new individuals
  • Ex/ Sponges, planaria, earthworm, lobster, sea star, plants
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9
Q

Gonads

A

specialized organs that produce gametes through meiotic cell division

  • Male - testes - produce sperm
  • Female - ovaries - produce ova
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10
Q

Germ cell

A
  • A cell that is committed to the production of gametes
  • Diploid; not a gamete
  • Its genome contributes to gametes and offspring
  • Mutations in somatic cells won’t be passed on
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11
Q

Testes

A
  • Male gonads
  • Site of sperm formation
  • Produce male hormones(testosterone)

semniferous tubuoles - support the stem

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12
Q

Vas deferens

A

Duct that carries sperm during ejaculation from the epididymis to the penis

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13
Q

Prostate gland

A

secretes semen directly into the urethra

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14
Q

Scrotum

A
  • sac outside the abodminal cavity that holds the testes
  • cooler temperature enables sperm to survive
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15
Q

Urethra

A

• Tube that carries urine and semen

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16
Q

Spermatogenesis

A
  • Begins as luteinizing hormone(LH) induces the testes to produce testosterone
  • FSH and testosterone stimulate sperm production

• Produces 4 mature sperm; each sperm has an X or Y chromosomes and doesn’t donate mitochondria to the embryo
• Continuous process
• Produces fresh sperm daily
• Spermatogonium(2n) –(Mitosis)–> Primary Spermatocyte(2n) –(Meiosis I)–> 2 Secondary spermatocyte(n) –(Meiosis 2)–> 4 spermatids(n) —-> 4 spermatozoa(n)
o Specialized sac called acrosome on sperm tip has enzymes that break through protective layers around the egg

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17
Q

Oogenesis

A
  • produces 1 egg and 3 polar bodies
  • begins prior to birth; a female is born with all the primary oocytes she will ever have
  • produces ova with only X chromosomes and donates mitochondria to the embryo
  • discontinuous process
  • ova progress to meiosis I and gets stuck at this stage; ova that mature during each menstrual cycle progress through this meiotic block
  • primary oocyte remains inactive within follicles in the ovaries until puberty, when they become reactivated by hormones
  • Oogonium(2n) –(mitosis)–> Primary Oocyte(2n) –(Meiosis I)–> Secondary Oocyte(n) & 1st polar body(n) –(Meiosis II)–> Ovum(n) & 2 2nd Polar Bodies(n)
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18
Q

Ovaries

A

female gonad

where meiosis occurs and where the secondary oocyte forms prior to birth

one ova develops each month within a follicle in an ovary

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19
Q

Fallopian tube/ Oviduct

A
  • where fertilization occurs
  • after ovulation, egg moves through the oviduct to the uterus
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20
Q

Uterus

A

where the blastula stage of the embryo will implant and develop during the nine-month gestation

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21
Q

vagina

A

birth canal; during labor and delivery, the baby passes through the cervix and into the vagina

22
Q

Cervix

A

mouth of the uterus

23
Q

Endometrium

A

lining of the uterus

24
Q

Menstrual Cycle

A
  1. Follicular Stage
  2. Ovulation
  3. Corpus Luteum Stage
  4. Menstruation

key hormones - GnRH, FSH, LH, estrogen, progesterone

cycle that repeats every 28 days

25
Q

Follicular Phase

A
  • 1st stage of Menstrual Cycle
  • Follicles(tiny cavities) grow/mature in the ovaries and secrete increasing amounts of estrogen in response to follicle-stimulating hormone(FSH) from the anterior pituitary
  • Estrogen promotes thickening of the uterine lining to support an embryo if fertilization occurs
  • 9-10 days
26
Q

Ovulation

A
  • 2nd stage of Menstrual Cycle
  • Secondary oocyte ruptures out of the ovaries in response to a rapid surge in luteinizing hormone(LH) from the anterior pituitary
  • 14th day
  • Constant high levels of estrogen usually block the LH surge and block ovulation(birth control pills)
27
Q

Luteal Phase

A
  • 3rd stage of Menstrual Cycle
  • After ovulation, the remains of the follicle create the corpus luteum
  • LH from the pituitary stimulates it to secrete estrogen and progesterone that thicken the endometrium of the uterus; triggers vascularization(growth of blood vessels)
  • Lasts 12-15 days
28
Q

Menstruation

A
  • 4th and last stage of Menstrual Cycle
  • If no fertilization, the increased estrogen and progesterone block LH production
  • Without LH, the corpus luteum wastes away and progesterone levels fall
  • Without progesterone, the buildup of the uterus lining breaks down and is shed
  • Lasts 4 days
29
Q

What happens if fertilization occurs?

A
  • The developing placenta produces HCG(human chorionic gonadotrophic hormone), which maintains the corpus luteum
  • It continues to make progesterone and estrogen
  • Progesterone prevents menstruation and ensures uterus lining is thickened to continue pregnancy
  • The placenta develops and takes over estrogen and progesterone production during pregnancy
30
Q

Hormonal Control of the Menstrual

A

Hypothalamus
Releases
.
.
Gonadotropic-Releasing Hormone(GnRH)
.
.
Stimulates

Anterior Pituitary

Releases

**Follicle-Stimulating Hormone(FSH) **

Luteinizing Hormone(LH)

Stimulates
.
.
Ovary

Releases

Estrogen Progesterone

Stimulates

Thickens the lining of the uterus

31
Q

Fraternal Twins

A
  • if there are 2 or more eggs released by the ovaries, more than 1 can be fertilizaed
  • the result of multiple fertilizations
  • dizygotic - 2 separate sperm fertilize 2 eggs
32
Q

Identical twins

A
  • monozygotic
  • one fertilized egg, split during early stages of cleavage
  • identical genomes
  • most differences between twins caused by environment
33
Q

External Fertilization

A

• Occurs in vertebrates that reproduce in water

  • fish and amphibians
  • eggs – laid in water
  • sperm – deposited near eggs in the water; have flagella to swim through water to the eggs
  • sperm likely to be diluted and chances of fertilization are reduced
  • decreases probability of survival of the young after fertilization
34
Q

Internal Fertilization

A
  • in vertebrate land animals
    • reptiles, birds, mammals
  • direct route to the egg for mobile sperm
  • increases the chance of fertilization
  • the less parental care, the more eggs are made
35
Q

Embryonic Development Stages

A

Zygote —– Cleavage —– Morula —— Blastula —— Gastrulation —– Gastrula —– Organogensis —— Fetus

36
Q

Cleavage

A
  • starts in the oviduct immediately after fertilization
  • rapid mitotic cell division of the zygote
  • creates a solid ball of cells - morula
  • end of cleavage when a blastula is made
37
Q

Blastula

A
  • a hollow, fluid-filled ball of cells
  • a signle layer thick
  • the fliud-filled center is a blastocoel
  • the individual cells are blastomeres
38
Q

Gastrulation

A
  • rearrangement of the blastula to prouce a gastrula
39
Q

Gastrula

A
  • 3-layered embryo
  • 3 differentiated layers called embryonic germ layers
  • ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm develop
40
Q

ectoderm

A
  • exterior
  • skin
  • nervous system
  • eyes
  • hair
  • teeth
  • sweat glands
41
Q

Endoderm

A
  • lining of digestive and respiratory tracts
  • lining of the bladder, pancreas, liver
  • viscera
    *
42
Q

Mesoderm

A
  • develop between the ectoderm and endoderm
  • muslces
  • skeleton
  • circulatory system
  • excretory system
  • gonads
  • inner layer of skin(dermis)
  • kidney
43
Q

Organogenesis

A
  • process by which cells continue to differentiate, prouducign organs from the 3 embryonic germ layers
  • embryo increases in size and becomes a fetus
44
Q

Extraembryonic membranes

A
  1. Chorion
  2. Yolk sac
  3. Amnion
  4. Allantois
45
Q

Chorion

A
  • lies under the shell
  • alloows diffusion of respiratory gases
46
Q

Allantois

A
  • same function as placenta in mammals
  • saclike structure developed from digestive tract
  • respiration and excretion
  • has many blood vessels to take in Oxygen and give off Carbon DIoxid, water, salt, and nitrogenous wastes
    *
47
Q

Amnion

A
  • encloses embryo in amniotic fluid
  • protection from shock
48
Q

Yolk sac

A
  • encloses the yolk, which is food
49
Q

Placental animals

A
  • no direct contact between teh bloodstreams of the mother and embryo
  • diffusion and active transport between adjacent blood vessels of mother and embryo in teh placenta
  • egss are very small
50
Q

Umbilical Cord

A
  • attaches embryo to the placenta
  • composed of tissues of embryonic, not maternal, origin
  • contains the umbilical artery and vein

SAT II BIOLOGY (26 decks)

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