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psychopathology Flashcards

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1
Q

deviation from social norms

A

any behaviour that differs from what society expects/ not the social norm and can change over time and culture

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2
Q

statistical infrequency

A

when an individual has a less common characteristic, in the top or bottom 2%

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3
Q

failure to function adequately

A

inability to deal with the demands of everyday life
maladaptive behaviour
personal anxiety and causing others distress (observer discomfort)
poor hygiene
stops from working
irrationality

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4
Q

deviation from ideal mental health

A

absence of good mental health
Jahoda (1958) developed a criteria:
environmental mastery
autonomy ( act independently)
resistance to stress
self actualisation
positive attitude the time oneself
accurate perception of reality
(EARSPA)

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5
Q

limitations of statistical infrequency

A

cultural relativism - symptoms of schizophrenia is common in african cultures
does not distinguish between desirable or undesirable traits - some abnormal behaviour is good (IQ over 150) can’t use alone as out can’t inform a clinician to treatment.

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6
Q

strength of statistical infrequency

A

In certain circumstances can be appropriate as IQ is measured by normal distribution and has real life application

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7
Q

strengths of deviation from social norms

A

does distinguish between desirable and undesirable behaviour (not in statistical infrequency) takes into account effect of behaviour on others- holistic approach

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8
Q

limitations of deviation from social norms

A

cultural relativism- DSM is largely biased on western social norms
change across time period e.g homosexuality is socially acceptable now but was a classification in the DSM so dependant on prevailing social attitudes at that time.

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9
Q

limitations of failure to function adequately

A

cultural relativism- based on cultural ideas of how we should act, class dependant
low class/ non white are diagnosed more often as lifestyles differ
an objective judgment on how to live - extremes sports could be said to be maladaptive behaviour, limiting personal freedom

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10
Q

what is a phobia

A

a persistant and irrational fear of a specific situation object or activity which is then avoided

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11
Q

what is depression

A

persistant sadness and a lack of interest in what you used to find pleasurable

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12
Q

what is OCD

A

where someone has obsessive thoughts (internal) and have compulsive behaviours (external)

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13
Q

emotional characteristics of phobias

A

anxiety

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14
Q

emotional characteristics of depression

A

sadness
avolition - loss of motivation
anger

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15
Q

emotional characteristics of OCD

A

anxiety and distress
embarrassment and shame

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16
Q

behavioural characteristics of phobias

A

panic
avoidance

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17
Q

behavioural characteristics of depression

A

reduction in energy
insomnia or increased sleep
appetite changes

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18
Q

behavioural characteristics of OCD

A

compulsive actions
avoidance

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19
Q

cognitive characteristics of phobias

A

irrational thought processes
cognitive distortions

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20
Q

cognitive characteristics of depression

A

negative thoughts
poor concentration
memory bias

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21
Q

cognitive characteristics of OCD

A

obsessive thoughts
sufferers aware these obsessive thoughts are irrational

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22
Q

DSM

A

diagnostic statistical manual (5th version) published by American psychiatric association

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23
Q

ICD

A

international classification of diseases published by world health organisation (11th version)

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24
Q

what is the behavioural approach?

A

suggests that we learn our behaviours

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25
Q

skinners research

A

skinners boxes (rats) rat pressed lever to get food which is positive reinforcement and when the rat moved off the grid it got shocked - negative reinforcement

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26
Q

operant conditioning

A

learning by rewards/ punishments

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27
Q

Watsons famous research

A

baby Albert was conditioned to be scared of a white rat when paired with a sound of a gong. the phobia was generalised to all fluffy white objects

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28
Q

classical conditioning

A

learning by association

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29
Q

2 process model

A

phobias initiated by classical conditioning and maintained by operant conditioning

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30
Q

limitations of the behavioural approach to explaining phobias

A

Incomplete explanation, Bouton (2007) says evolutionary factors could play a role in phobias especially stimulus that could’ve caused pain or death to ancestors (snakes). Suggests phobias are not learnt but innate and a survival mechanism for our ancestors. Called biological preparedness and a limitation of the two-process model.

Ignores the role of cognition, cognitivists argue that phobias are a result of irrational thinking (claustrophobia thinking they will get trapped). CBT can be more effective than behaviourists approaches suggesting that the cognitive component of phobias are more important than the stimulus response link, challenging validity

31
Q

strengths of the behavioural approach to explaining phobias

A

Supportive empirical evidence – Watson and Rayner (1920) created a phobia in Baby Albert the researchers initiated a phobia by using classical conditioning of a white rat (neutral stimulus) when paired with a loud noise (unconditioned stimulus) was then generalised to all white fluffy objects. Supports the idea of learning by association. Increases the validity of the theory and are not innate.

32
Q

what is systematic desensitisation

A

patients learn to respond to a feared stimuli with relaxation instead of anxiety
anxiety hierarchy
gradual exposure

33
Q

what is flooding

A

immediate exposure to phobia to prevent avoidance

34
Q

strengths of systematic desensitisation

A

Empirical evidence, McGrath et al (1990) reported 75% patients responded to SD when using in vivo techniques. Scientific research shows patients improved demonstrating the value of using a range of exposure techniques. The key is actual contact with feared stimulus (in vivo techniques), Increases validity

More appropriate for all patients, e.g., sufferers of anxiety could have panic attacks with immediate exposure, so SD is more appropriate, and level of anxiety is more tolerable, more inclusive for a diverse range of patients

35
Q

strengths of flooding

A

More cost effective, Ougrin (2011) compared flooding to CBT and found its must as effective and more cost effective. Implication on the economy as it reduces the financial burden on the NHS as it is quicker and therefore cheaper. Should be the first treatment to overcome phobias for patients of the NHS

36
Q

limitation of systematic desenstation

A

SD may not be appropriate for all phobias: Ohman et al. (1975) suggests that SD may not be as effective in treating phobias that have an underlying evolutionary survival component (e.g. fear of the dark, heights or fear of dangerous animals), than in treating phobias which have been acquired as a result of personal experience, as it is part of a cognitive component.

37
Q

limitations of flooding

A

Not appropriate for all patients, not unethical as they give informed consent but is distressing and intensity can increase attrition rates. Furthermore, could make it worse if not completed, individual differences can be a limitation.
Highly effective for simple (specific) phobias, the treatment is less effective for other types of phobias, including social phobia and agoraphobia. Some psychologists suggest that social phobias are caused by irrational thinking and are not caused by an unpleasant experience (or learning through classical conditioning). Therefore, more complex phobias cannot be treated by behaviourist treatments and may be more responsive to other forms of treatment, for example cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT), which treats the irrational thinking.

38
Q

what is the cognitive approach to explaining depression

A

down to dysfunctional thinking, faulty thinking and irrational thinking (unhelpful thinking styles)

39
Q

who was the founder of CBT

A

Beck

40
Q

what is the negative triad

A

negative thoughts about the world, future and self

41
Q

what is a negative schema

A

deeply held beliefs developed in childhood which provides negative framework for interpreting future events

42
Q

what does ellis believe about depression

A

doesn’t occur due to a negative event but produced by irrational thoughts triggered by negative events

43
Q

what is ellis ABC model

A

A- activating event, B- belief of explanation to why event occurred (irrational belief), C- consequence (unhealthy negative emotion)

44
Q

where is the source of irrational thinking

A

mustabatory thinking

45
Q

what is mustabatory thinking

A

Thinking that certain ideas must be true for an individual to be happy (I must do well, or I am worthless)

46
Q

limitations of cognitive explanation to depression

A

Reductionist as it only considers the role of thinking and ignores other factors.
E.g., mustabatory thinking will alone lead to depression
Ignores biological research indicating low levels of neurotransmitter serotonin
Too simplistic and other approaches need to be considered with a more holistic view.

47
Q

strengths of cognitive explanation of depression

A

Supportive empirical evidence
Grazioli and Terry (2000) assessed 65 pregnant women for cognitive vulnerability and depression before and after birth. Those who had higher cognitive vulnerability were more likely to end up with post-natal depression.
Cognitive factors were seen before so can establish cause and effect and therefore supports faulty cognitive thinking may cause depression
Increases validity

Application to real life in therapeutic settings
Gautam 2020 found that CBT was the most effective
It challenges irrational beliefs does alleviate depressive symptoms then it shows the thoughts play a main role in the mental health disorder
Increases validity and has a positive implication for the NHS due to CBT being cost effective and time bound

48
Q

what does CBT aim to do

A

identify and challenge irrational thinking and replace them with positive ones

49
Q

what type of homework is involved in CBT

A

thought diaries and thought catching

50
Q

what is REBT

A

Rational emotive behaviour therapy

51
Q

what are the types of disputing as part of the DEF model

A

Empirical disputing – empirical is evidence so therapist asks client for evidence to test their beliefs
Logical disputing- self-defeating beliefs don’t follow logic so therapist asks does this make sense
Pragmatic disputing- dealing with things practically

52
Q

what is the DEF model

A

dispute, effective new responses and feelings

53
Q

strengths of cognitive approach to treating depression

A

Empirical supporting evidence
March et al (2007), 327 adolescents with depression, 81% of CBT group reported improvements, 81% of antidepressant group showed improvements and 86% of CBT plus antidepressants had significantly improved.
Research suggests CBT is effective but even more so with drug therapy
CBT is as effective as drug therapy but cognitions and physiology both need to be treated

54
Q

limitations of cognitive approach to treating depression

A

Individual differences can change the effectiveness
Ellis claims 90% success rate over 27 sessions but is proved to be not as effective when clients don’t put revised beliefs into action. This is more relevant for severely depressed people and lacking in motivation
Furthermore, therapist competence explains variations which suggest there are several factors that influences the success of CBT and limits the effectiveness
Therefore, not always effective, or appropriate

Only focuses on present which may not meet the needs of all individuals
Patients who experienced adverse childhood events (ACEs) may need to go back and explore the root of the trauma. Bellis et al (2014) estimated 9% of the population having over 4 ACEs indicating high rate of negative childhood experiences can cause depression.
Discussing current irrational thinking doesn’t allow them to emotionally process and deal with past experiences and may need deeper therapy
If root case is trauma, then CBT may not be a suitable treatment

55
Q

who is the main researcher in the biological approach to explaining OCD

A

nestadt et al (2000)

56
Q

what did nestdat find

A

first degree relatives of OCD sufferers had a higher chance of developing the disorder
12% of those with relatives with OCD
3% chance of control group (no relatives) which shows OCD is partly genetic

57
Q

what is polygenetic

A

more than one gene included, up to 230 candidate genes

58
Q

what is aetiologically heterogeneous

A

different combinations of genes cause different types of OCD in different people

59
Q

what is the COMT gene and what does it do

A

A mutation of this gene causes low levels of the comt gene, this enzyme regulates the amount of the neurotransmitter dopamine in the brain, low levels of the enzyme means high levels of dopamine

60
Q

what is the SERT gene and what does it do

A

a mutation of this gene creates a protein that removes serotonin, and this leads to low levels of serotonin

61
Q

what are the two main genes involved

A

COMT and SERT

62
Q

what is the diathesis stress model

A

suggest that some environmental stress is necessary to trigger the condition with the genetic vulnerability

63
Q

strengths of the biological explanation to OCD

A

Empirical supporting evidence
Nestadt et al (2010) reviewed twin studies and found 68% of identical twins studied shared OCD opposed to 31% of non-identical twins
Monozygotic twins sharing 100% of DNA are more likely to develop OCD than dizygotic twins who share 50%
Increases validity of the theory, however evidence is only correlational and therefore causality cannot be established and suggest other factors are involved as concordance rates are not 100%

64
Q

limitations of biological approach to explaining OCD

A

Too many candidate genes, potentially 230
Several genes are involved in OCD and each genetic variation only increases the risk by a fraction
This limits usefulness of explanation as its too complex and unlikely we can fully understand it. Low predictive validity as we are unsure on the exact genes and genetic variations that increases the risk of OCD
Complexity of the genetic explanation Is a limitation for application to the real world

Doesn’t consider the environmental factors that may play a role
Cromer er al (20070 found over half of OCD sufferers in their sample have experienced a traumatic past event and the OCD was more severe in those with more than one trauma
Suggests not genetics alone leads to OCD and a better explanation is the diathesis stress model which considers both genetics and the environment
Genetic explanation may be too reductionist and validity of the theory has been challenged

65
Q

what are the two neural explanations to explaining OCD biological

A
  1. Abnormal levels of neurotransmitters
  2. The worry circuit
66
Q

what are the abnormal levels of neurotransmitters

A

Serotonin regulates mood, low levels of serotonin is linked to symptoms associated with OCD e.g., anxiety
Dopamine maintains interest and motivation, so high levels lead to maintaining a compulsive thought/ behaviour – OCD

67
Q

what is the worry circuit

A

One area of the brain linked to OCD is the frontal lobe, Orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), and caudate nucleus have a role in OCD
* OFC sends worry signals to thalamus
* On the way the caudate nucleus is meant to filter unimportant signals
* If caudate nucleus is damaged it will let all signals through so thalamus is altered too often and we worry more
This causes compulsive thoughts and behaviours so is linked to OCD

68
Q

strengths of the neural explanation to OCD

A

Empirical evidence that neurotransmitters do play a role
e.g., Anti-depressants work on the neural system and some purely on serotonin i.e., SSRIS, increasing levels of this neurotransmitter by blocking serotonin uptake process
are effective in reducing symptoms od OCD
whilst this association does suggest low levels of serotonin causes symptoms of OCD, this evidence of correlational and therefore cannot establish causation

Empirical evidence
Menzies et al (2007) used MRI to produce brain activity images in OCD sufferers and their immediate family without OCD and a control group. Found OCD and family members had reduced grey matter in the key regions of the brain including the OFC
Supports both explanations, one that OFC plays a role in OCD and differences in brains structure inherited as family members also had reduced grey matter
Useful real-world application

69
Q

what is used in the biological approach to treating OCD

A

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)
serotonin and noradrenalin reuptake inhibitors (SNRI)

70
Q

what are SSRIs

A

) act on the serotonin system by preventing reuptake and breaking down of serotonin by the presynaptic neuron, therefore, concentration of serotonin in synapse increasing causing the post-synaptic neuron to be continually stimulated

71
Q

what are SNRIs

A

block the transporter mechanism that reabsorbs both serotine and noradrenalin so more of each – these have greater side effects

72
Q

strengths of biological approach to treating OCD

A

More cost-effective and less disruptive on patients’ lives compared to talking therapies SSRIs are cheaper so has economic implications for the UK and better for the NHS which could reduce financial pressure on an already struggling public service
less disruptive as it’s only one tablet a day and no weekly sessions or homework like in CBT
preferred treatment from GPs

Supporting empirical evidence
Soomro et al (2009) review studies comparing SSRIs to placebos and treatment of OCD, or 17 studies showed significantly better results for the SSR groups in the short term supports the argument that biological treatments are effective on an average of 70 OCD patients having improved symptoms with drug therapy which suggests serotonin has a role in the development of the disorder
However, studies were typically 3 to 4 months long so little data on long-term drug therapy

73
Q

limitations to biological approach of treating OCD

A

Serious side effects
Even 1st line treatments can cause indigestion, blurred vison and loss of sex drive, clomipramine can cause more serious side effects such as tremors and weight gain.
Ashton (1997) recommends drugs for OCD used no longer than 4 weeks due to side effects
Not an effective long-term treatment

Concern of publication bias
Turner (2008) had evidence to show a favourable outcome publication bias in more studies being published that show treatment to be effective
Drug companies sponsor research into effectiveness and have a strong interest in the continuing success of drug treatment so don’t publish all the results and maybe suppressing evidence
Evidence may be biased towards positive outcomes

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