Module 2 Social Psychology and Health

Question 1

Holmes and Rahe (1967),

for example, suggested that stress is :

Answer 1

the degree to which people have to change and
readjust their lives in response to an external event. The more change required, the
more stress occurs.

Question 2

systematic definition of stress

Answer 2

The negative feelings and beliefs
that occur whenever people feel
unable to cope with demands
from their environment

Question 3

T/f: It turns out that even relatively mild

stressors such as these can lead to a suppression of the immune system

Answer 3

True. People were first exposed to
the virus that causes the common cold, and then isolated. The
greater the amount of stress they
were experiencing, the greater
the likelihood that they caught a
cold from this virus.

Question 4

perceived control

Answer 4

The belief that we can influence our environment in ways that determine whether we experience
positive or negative outcomes

Question 5

Perceived control is __- correlated with health

Answer 5

positively correlated with health.
For example,
research conducted at the University of Manitoba found that first-year students who
felt that they had control over their academic performance reported less anxiety, stress,
boredom, and depression. Importantly, these students also achieved better grades than
those who perceived less control

Question 6

explain the study done on perceived control in nursing homes

Answer 6

In two studies, elderly residents in
nursing homes were made to feel
more in control of their lives. In one
(Rodin & Langer, 1977), the intervention endured over time so that
people continued to feel in control.
As seen in the left side of the figure,
this intervention had positive effects
on mortality rates. Those who received it were more likely to be alive
18 months later than those who did
not. In the other study (Schulz &
Hanusa, 1978), the intervention was
temporary. Being given control and
then having it taken away had negative effects on mortality rates, as
seen in the right side of the figure

Question 7

explain the relationships between disease, control, and well-being

Answer 7

Researchers have found that even when
people who are seriously ill with cancer or AIDS feel no control over the disease,
many of them believe that they can still control the consequences of the disease (e.g.,
their emotional reactions and some of the physical symptoms, such as how tired they
feel) In short, it is important to feel in
control of something—even if it is not the disease itself

Question 8

self-efficacy

Answer 8

The belief in one’s ability to carry
out specific actions that produce
desired outcomes

Question 9

why is self efficacy so important in terms of health?

Answer 9

People’s level of self-efficacy has been found to predict a number of other important health behaviours, such as the likelihood that they will quit smoking, lose weight,
lower their cholesterol, and exercise regularly

Question 10

How does self-efficacy increase the lieklihood that people will engage in the desired behaviour to increase health outcomes?

Answer 10

1) influences people’s persistence and effort at a task. people with low self-efficacy tend to give up easily, whereas people high in self-efficacy set higher goals, try harder, and persist more in the face of failure.

2) , self-efficacy influences the way our bodies react while we are working toward our
goals. For example, people with high self-efficacy experience less anxiety while working on a difficult task, and their immune system functions more optimally

Question 11

how can self-efficacy be increased?

Answer 11

1. people need to have the BELIEF that they will succeed– ex/ you were selected because you showed that you had strong willpower and great potential to control your desires to smoke
2. they need to visualize their success. In a series of studies, university students were asked about an important academic task such as a test or an essay that they would be writing in the next
   few weeks. Participants who were asked to imagine that they were an observer, seeing
   themselves carrying out the task successfully, subsequently reported higher achievement motivation than participants who did not engage in this kind of visualization
3. think about times you accomplished a similar goal.
4. PLAN on how you will achieve your goal.

Question 12

Learned helplessness

Answer 12

pessimism that results from attributing a negative

event to stable, internal, and global factors

Question 13

stable attribution

Answer 13

The belief that the cause of an
event is a result of factors that
will not change over time, as opposed to unstable factors that will
change over time

Question 14

internal attribution

Answer 14

The inference that a person is behaving in a certain way because of
something about him or her, such
as his or her attitude, character, or
personality

Question 15

global attribution

Answer 15

The belief that the cause of an
event is a result of factors that apply in a large number of situations (ex/ OUR GENERAL INTELLIGENCE),
as opposed to the belief that the cause is specific and applies in only a limited number of situations

Question 16

According to learned helplessness theory, making ___, ____, and ___ attributions for negative events leads to hopelessness, depression, reduced effort, and
difficulty in learning

Answer 16

According to learned helplessness theory, making stable, internal, and global
attributions for negative events leads to hopelessness, depression, reduced effort, and
difficulty in learning

Students who realize that poor academic performance in the first year of university is common and
that they are likely to improve (do not make a stable attribute) will probably do better than students who believe that poor performance
is a result of personal shortcomingsthat are unlikely to change

Question 17

coping styles

Answer 17

the ways in which people react to stressful events

Question 18

why is the tend and befriend method of coping with stress beneficial?

Answer 18

Befriending involves the creation of
close ties with other members of the species, which also confers a number of advantages. A close-knit group can exchange resources, watch out for predators, and share
child care

Question 19

men and women coping mechanism differences

Answer 19

men fight or flight, but women are more likely to tend and befriend.

BUT: seeking social support like tend and befriend is actually beneficial to both gender.

Question 20

social support

Answer 20

the perception that others are responsive and receptive to one’s needs.

Question 21

T/F: when facing a stressful situation, the mere presence of another individual that you trust (like your partner) is enough

Answer 21

false.
people whose partners had been inattentive in the cliff walking task later kept greater physical distance from their partner than those with an attentive partner or no partner present. The researchers conclude that “mere presence is not enough”; social support requires that those around us
are responsive to our need

Question 22

T/F: having social support lengthens your life

Answer 22

true. in a study with women who were going through health complications, Social support not only improved women’s moods and reduced their fears, but
also lengthened their lives by an average of 18 months. Other studies have shown that
interventions designed to increase social support and decrease stress in cancer patients
improve immune system functioning

Question 23

T/F receiving social support is beneficial, but so is giving support

Answer 23

true! Interestingly, it is not just receiving
social support that is beneficial: A study of people aged 65 and over found that those who
gave support to others, such as helping family members with child care or doing errands
for a neighbour, lived longer than people who did not

Question 24

how exactly does social support help you during tough times?

Answer 24

1. help you interpret an event as less stressful than you would
   otherwise interpret it
2. we do interpret an event as stressful, social support can help us cope.

Question 25

how does social support operate differently in different cultures?

Answer 25

When under stress,
members of East Asian cultures are less likely to seek social support than members of Western cultures. Members of collectivistic cultures are concerned that seeking support will disrupt the harmony of the group and
open them up to criticism from others.

Members of collectivistic cultures are less
likely to directly ask for help in a way that shows that they are having problems. But
they do benefit from interacting with supportive others

Question 26

research has shown that personality traits affect stress-coping styles.

For example, University of Manitoba researchers found that
elderly people who were high in ____ reported that they were more physically
active than other people their ag

Answer 26

high in OPTIMISM

These researchers also have found that first-year university students with high optimism
are less stressed, less depressed, and more likely to feel in control of their lives than
those who are less optimistic

Question 27

T/F: people are actually found to have less optimism in general

Answer 27

fasle. The good news is that most people have been found to have an optimistic outlook on life. In fact, there is evidence that most people are unrealistically optimistic
about their live

Question 28

hardiness is another personality trait that affects stress-coping skills.

hardiness is a combination of ___ ____ and ___ ___ ___

Answer 28

self esteem and sense of control that helps people interpret and deal with stressful events in a positive, effective manner.

Hardiness
was associated with fewer health symptoms, finding the training less stressful, greater satisfaction with training and with
general life satisfaction

Question 29

people high in hardiness tend to make different attributions for negative events:

Answer 29

In other words,
the hardy participants, unlike their less hardy counterparts,
treated the discrimination they experienced as an ISOLATED event, and not as an ongoing issue that pervaded all aspects
of their lives.

Question 30

resilience

Answer 30

defined as the ability to recover from negative experiences and adapt to the demands
of life. People who are high in resilience showed higher life satisfaction, greater
optimism, more positive emotions, and less depression than those who are low in resilience

Question 31

T/F: resilience is a rare human quality

Answer 31

false. In fact, resilience may be the norm rather than
the exception. Studies of bereaved spouses, for example, typically find that fewer
than half show signs of significant, long-term distress. The remainder show no signs
of depression and are able to experience positive emotions

Question 32

opening up has been seen to actually help in the long term. survivors of the Holocaust who disclosed the most about
their World War II experiences improved their health over the next several months.

Why does opening help lead to better health?

Answer 32

1. people who write or talk about negative events construct a more meaningful narrative or story that explains the events
2. people might be less inclined to suppress thoughts about a traumatic event if
   they have written about it. Usually, trying to suppress thoughts
   can lead to a preoccupation with those very thoughts, because the act of not trying to
   think about them can actually make us think about them more. Thus,
   writing about or confiding in others about a traumatic event can help us gain a better
   understanding of the event and move forward with life

Question 33

Using social psychological interventions to promote healthier behaviour

Answer 33

1. fear inducing – like cigarette packages
2. induce cognitive dissonance.
3. theory of planned behaviour/subjective norms;
   people are more likely to use condoms when they believe other
   people approve of condom use (subjective norms), when they believe that condom use
   is an issue that they can control, and when they have strong intentions to use condoms.

Question 34

When trying to get people to engage in
behaviour that will prevent disease, it is best to use a “____ frame,” emphasizing what they
have to gain by engaging in this behaviour

Answer 34

When trying to get people to engage in
behaviour that will prevent disease, it is best to use a “gain frame,” emphasizing what they
have to gain by engaging in this behaviour

Question 35

When trying to get people to detect the presence of a disease, it is best to use a “____ frame,”
emphasizing what they have to lose by avoiding this behaviour

Answer 35

When trying to get people to detect the presence of a disease, it is best to use a “loss frame,”
emphasizing what they have to lose by avoiding this behaviour

To
give an example, Rothman and colleagues presented women with information trying to get them to avoid skin cancer (Rothman, Salovey, Antone, Keough, & Martin,
1993). Some participants received a message that focused on the positive benefits of
being concerned about skin cancer (e.g., “If they are detected early, most of these
cancers are curable”). Other participants received a message framed in terms of the
negative consequences of not being concerned about skin cancer (e.g., “Unless they
are detected and treated early, most of these cancers are not curable”). It turned out
that the gain-framed message worked best with prevention behaviour (i.e., requesting
a sample of sunscreen). The loss-framed message worked best on detection behaviour
(i.e., the women’s intention to perform exams of their skin

Question 36

A _____ frame focuses
our attention on the possibility that we might have a problem that can be dealt with by
performing detection behaviours (e.g., examining our skin for cancer). A ____ frame
focuses our attention on the fact that we are in a good state of health and that to
stay that way, we should perform preventive behaviours (e.g., using sunscreen when
exposed to the sun and condoms when having sex).

Answer 36

A LOSS frame focuses
our attention on the possibility that we might have a problem that can be dealt with by
performing detection behaviours (e.g., examining our skin for cancer). A GAIN frame
focuses our attention on the fact that we are in a good state of health and that to
stay that way, we should perform preventive behaviours (e.g., using sunscreen when
exposed to the sun and condoms when having sex).