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Biology unit 5 > Genetic engineering > Flashcards

Genetic engineering Flashcards

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1
Q

What are genetically modified organisms

A

Organisms that have had their genomes altered by genetic engineering techniques

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2
Q

Why do scientists develop GMO’s

A

These organisms have a more desirable phenotype

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3
Q

What is a transgenic organism

A

A genetically modified organism that contains recombinant DNA

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4
Q

What is the DNA from another organism that is put in the GMO called

A

Recombinant DNA

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5
Q

What was the first type of organism that was genetically modified and why

A

Bacteria which was engineered to produce the human protein insulin

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6
Q

What is the first step required to create GM bacteria

A

isolate the desired gene which encodes insulin from the genome of an organism (human)

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7
Q

How can the desired gene be isolated

A

Restriction endonuclease enzymes can cut the gene out of the chromosome

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8
Q

What are Restriction endonuclease enzymes

A

A type of enzyme that can cut up DNA at a specific sequence of bases called recognition sites

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9
Q

What are recognition sites

A

Sequences of bases specific to each restriction enzyme that are usually palindromic

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10
Q

What are the 2 types of cuts restriction endonuclease enzymes can make

A
  • Clean straight cuts through both strands of DNA at the recognition site - Cut the 2 DNA strands unevenly, creating sticky ends
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11
Q

What are sticky ends

A

Short regions at the end of DNA that are single stranded and therefor have exposed unpaired nucleotides

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12
Q

In order to transfer the isolated gene into the bacteria what must first be done

A

The gene must be inserted into a plasmid

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13
Q

What is a plasmid

A

A circular length of DNA that is found inside bacteria and able to pass into them

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14
Q

How is the plasmid cut

A

Using the same restriction endonuclease enzymes used to isolate the gene

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15
Q

What does using the same restriction endonuclease enzymes ensure

A

Ensures that the sticky ends of the desired gene and the plasmid are complementary and can therefor anneal to each other

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16
Q

What happens once the plasmid and the desired gene have annealed

A

The DNA of the gene and the plasmid permanently joins together by the enzyme DNA ligase

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17
Q

What does this create when ligase has worked

A

Recombinant plasmid

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18
Q

What is done with the recombinant plasmid

A

It is transferred into the host bacterial cell in a process called transformation.

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19
Q

What can occur once the bacteria has been ‘transformed’

A

It will be able to produce the protein

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20
Q

What is the issue with transformation

A

It is an inefficient process and only around 1% of bacteria successfully take up the plasmid

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21
Q

What is the issue with some bacteria taking up the plasmid but not others

A

Bacteria that don’t take it up are not useful so must be removed

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22
Q

How are bacteria that have taken up the plasmid identified

A

The plasmids contain a marker gene which makes it resistant against an antibiotic. All are then cultured on a petri dish in a medium that contains an antibiotic which kills the bacteria that were not transformed

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23
Q

What will happen to the transformed bacteria that survive the petri dish

A

They will grow colonies which are then cultured in a fermenter. The protein produced by the bacteria is then extracted from the culture and purified

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24
Q

What does the plasmid act as

A

A vector

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25
Q

What is the benefits of using human insulin produced by bacteria over insulin taken from animals

A
  • Human insulin has a lower risk of being rejected from the immune system and lowers the risk of infection - Human insulin is less expensive to obtain than pig insulin which lowers the price of the treatment
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26
Q

What is the negatives of using human insulin produced by bacteria over insulin taken from animals

A
  • Many people have ethical concerns about the introduction of human DNA into bacteria - Marker genes for antibiotic resistance may be transferred from GM bacteria to other pathogens as bacteria can transfer plasmids - The ability to genetically modify bacteria could result in the production of more lethal pathogens which could be used in biological warfare
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27
Q

What is a way of getting around the issue of antibiotic resistance may be transferred from GM bacteria to other pathogens

A

They modify GM bacteria so that they are unable to produce an essential nutrient or amino acid and therefor dependant on its presence in the culture medium. This also means GM bacteria cannot survive outside the lab and reducing the chance of them coming into contact with pathogens.

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28
Q

How can plants be genetically modified

A
  • Agrobacterium. Tumefaciens - A gene gun - Electrofusion
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29
Q

What does Agrobacterium. Tumefaciens do?

A

It is a bacteria that infects plants and inserts a Ti plasmid which causes the plant to form tumours

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30
Q

How are GM plants made with Agrobacterium. Tumefaciens

A

The desired gene is inserted into the Ti plasmid along with a marker gene (for antibiotic resistance)

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31
Q

What does the Ti plasmid become when it has had the desired gene inserted into it

A

A recombinant Ti plasmid

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32
Q

What is done with the recombinant Ti plasmid

A

It is inserted into the Agrobacterium. Tumefaciens

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33
Q

What does the Agrobacterium. Tumefaciens do

A

Infects the plant and inserts the desired gene and the marker gene into the plant genome. This causes a genetically modified mass of cells to form called a callus

34
Q

What do scientists do with the callus

A

Ensure it has been successfully genetically modified by growing the callus on a medium containing antibiotics

35
Q

What can then be done with the callus when it has been tested for its genetic modification

A

The callus can be used to produce many GM plant clones by growing pieces of the callus in a medium containing plant hormones. Each piece of callus will develop leaves and shoots from tiny plants called plantlets

36
Q

What is done with the plantlets

A

They are potted in soil and will eventually develop into a fully grown GM plant

37
Q

How can plants be modified without the direct use of vectors

A

Gene guns

38
Q

What does a gene gun do

A

It shoots small pieces of gold or tungsten into plant cells

39
Q

What are the small pieces of gold or tungsten coated with

A

The DNA sequence of the desired gene and a marker

40
Q

How is use of gene gun ineffective

A

Not all plant cells will survive the use of a gene gun or incorporate the DNA into their genomes

41
Q

What is done with the plant cells after the gene gun has been used on them

A

They are cultured in a medium containing antibiotics and plant hormones and the GM plant cells grow to form a callus

42
Q

What is the callus used to form

A

Many GM plant clones

43
Q

What is plant Pharming

A

Where GM plants are developed to produce a specific drug or medical protein

44
Q

Where can the drug or medical protein be produced in the plant

A

In specific parts such as seeds, leaves or tubers

45
Q

What is done with the plant organs of the GM plant once it is fully grown

A

They are harvested and the drug or medicinal protein is then extracted

46
Q

What are the uses of plant PHarming

A
  • Can be used as a method of combatting infectious diseases caused by pathogens - They can be used to produce antibodies that are specific to antigens found on a pathogen - They can produce the antigens of specific pathogens which can then be used to develop a vaccine against a specific disease
47
Q

What is the main staple diet for the majority of humans

A

Plants

48
Q

What is the issue with plants being the main staple diet for the majority of humans

A

They are vulnerable to disease, pests and adverse environmental conditions such as floods or drought

49
Q

What do crops face competition with

A

Weeds, for resources, which grow faster and may outcompete them

50
Q

What do the issues to do with crops cause

A

They reduce the yield and cause farmers financial issues. This may mean that we cant feed the overpopulated planet

51
Q

What is the issue with selective breeding to produce crops with more desirable traits

A

It is a very slow ‘hit or miss’ technique

52
Q

What are the advantages of genetically modifying plants

A

They can be modified to have specific desirable traits

53
Q

What types of genes can be introduced to boost crop yield

A
  • Herbicide resistance - Pest resistance - Disease resistance - Drought or flood resistance - Increased nutritional value - Extended shelf life
54
Q

What are the risks of GM crops

A
  • They contain marker genes for antibiotic resistance - Genes that provide plants with resistance to disease and herbicides may spread onto wild plants - Pests or pathogens could evolve resistance to the pesticide in GM crops - GM crops with resistance to floods or drought may be able to grow in countries that previously did not have a suitable climate - Issues with patenting
55
Q

What is the issue with GM plants containing marker genes for antibiotic resistance

A

These genes could possibly be transferred to pathogens in the intestine of the consumer

56
Q

What is the issue with Genes that provide plants with resistance to disease and herbicides may spread onto wild plants

A

Could causes issues such as super weeds

57
Q

How could the risk of Pests or pathogens evolving resistance to the pesticide in GM crops be reduced

A

By producing GM crops that produce multiple pesticides

58
Q

What are the issues with patenting GM crops

A

Patents prevent farmers from being able to grow the crops without paying for the seeds. GM crop seeds may be more expensive so the farmers who need them most may not be able to afford them. They may make seeds infertile so farmers cant use seeds from the harvest for growing again and have to buy more

59
Q

What are the methods of genetically engineering animals

A
  • Transfection - Liposomes - Microinjection
60
Q

Describe transfection

A

Viruses can be used as vectors to insert DNA into animal cells in a process known as transfection

61
Q

What cell has to be used for transfection and why

A

A fertilised egg cell (zygote) so that the whole animal becomes GM

62
Q

What must first be done in transfection

A

The desired gene must first be incorporated into the genome of a virus. and the viral genome must be modified so that the virus can enter but not replicate inside host cells

63
Q

Which viruses are used in transfection

A

Retrovirus or adenovirus

64
Q

What is the benefit of viral genome being modified so that the virus can enter but not replicate inside host cells

A

It reduces the risk of viral vectors causing disease by damaging the host cells

65
Q

What does the virus do once it has entered the cell

A

It incorporates its DNA, including the desired gene into the animal genome

66
Q

What is a liposome

A

A small sphere formed from a phospholipid bilayer

67
Q

How do liposomes GM animals

A

Many copies of the desired gene is wrapped in the liposomes which are easily able to fuse with animal cell membranes, this results in the delivery of the desired gene into the cytoplasm of the host cell

68
Q

What is the difficulty with liposomes

A

The DNA then needs to be incorporated into the animal genome which is a challenging and inefficient process

69
Q

Describe a microinjection

A

It is the process of inserting DNA directly into the nucleus of an animal cell using a very fine micropipette

70
Q

What piece of equipment does a microinjection need and what does it do

A

Needs a micro manipulator which does the microinjection with greater precision than can be achieved manually

71
Q

What is the issue with microinjections

A

It is very inefficient as many cells must be injected before one successfully incorporates the DNA into the host genome

72
Q

What are GM animals most commonly used for

A

PHarming

73
Q

Why may animals be GM instead of bacteria for PHarming

A

Animals may be better at producing larger more complex eukaryotic proteins

74
Q

Why are mammals most commonly used in PHarming

A

They can secrete the medically required human proteins in milk

75
Q

Describe the process of GM an animals to produce a specific protein

A
  • Desired gene is introduced into a fertilised female egg cell - The gene contains a tissue specific promoter sequence so that the gene is only expressed in the mammary glands - So when the GM female mammal reaches maturity and gives birth it will start producing milk that contains the human protein which can then be extracted and used for medical applications
76
Q

What can GM animals also be used for

A

Models in scientific research

77
Q

How do GM animals act as models

A

They can be GM so that some of their genes are silenced in order to model human diseases caused by faulty genes

78
Q

What is it called when a gene is silenced by genetic engineering

A

Gene knockout and the animal is called a knockout animal

79
Q

What are knockout mice used for and how

A

Used as models for cancer by deleting genes involved in regulating cell division. Then these can then be used to test possible cancer treatments

80
Q

What are some ethical issues with GM animals

A
  • Some people may have an ethical issue with the insertion of human genes into animals - Most GM animals die during development as the insertion of a gene can interrupt essential functioning of other genes - GM animals that do survive may have harmful side effects like lameness and susceptibility to stress - Using animals as models of human diseases will negatively effect their welfare

Biology unit 5 (49 decks)

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