Fungi, Mosses, Worts Flashcards
spore-producing organisms
cryptograms
Includes ferns and fern allies but they are included with the flowering plants
cryptograms
Means only ‘spore producing organisms other than ferns and ferns allies’
cryptograms
nclude fungi, mosses, liverworts, and hornworts
cryptograms
Spore producing structures include and are often referred to as fruit bodies (3)
mushrooms
puffballs
stinkhorns
permanent, feeding part of the fungus is out of sight (wood, soil, dung, etc.) and consist of network of fine threads
mycelium
The fungal individual, just as a tree (not of any of its fruits) is the individual
mycelium
mosses, liverworts, and hornworts make up these
bryophytes
come from the latin word for mushrooms
FUNGUS
many fungi species that do not produce this at all
MUSHROOMS
being eukaryotes, a typical cell of this contain a true nucleus and many membrane-bound organelles
fungal cell
includes an enormous variety of living organisms collectively known as Eucomycota
kingdom
100,000 fungi were identified by scientist
kingdom fungi
1.5 million species of fungi likely present on Earth
kingdom fungi
Edible mushrooms, yeasts, black mold, penicillium notatum
kingdom fungi
once considered plant-like organisms, are more closely related to animals than plants
fungi
some fungal organisms multiply only through this, while some undergo both asexual and sexual reproduction with alternation of generations
asexual
haploid cells that can undergo mitosis to form multicellular haploid individuals
spores
role of fungi in ecosystem and participate in cycling of nutrients by breaking down organic materials to simple molecules
decomposers
fungi often interact with other organisms, often forming this kind of association
beneficial or mutualistic associations
fungus that connect with the roots of the plant where the fungus and plant exchange nutrients and water, greatly aiding the survival of both species
mycorrhizae
association between a fungus and photosynthetic partner (usually alga)
lichens
caused by the fungus Ophiostoma ulmi, a particularly devastating type of fungal infestation that destroys many native species of elm (Ulmus sp.) by infecting the tree’s vascular system
dutch elm disease
fungus that causes dutch elm disease
Ophiostoma ulmi
acts as a vector, transmitting the dutch elm disease from tree to tree
elm bark
unlike bacteria, fungi does not respond to this
antibiotics therapy
may be proved deadly for individuals with compromised immune systems
fungal infections
Uses of fungi in commerce
baking
brewing
cheese and wine making
was originally classified as plants up until the mid-20th century
fungi
Arose mostly sessile and seemingly rooted in place
fungi
Possess a stem-like structure similar to plants as well as having a root-like fungal mycelium in the soil
fungi
fungi appeared in what era
pre-cambrian era
Molecular biology analysis of their genome demonstrated that they are more closely related to animals than plants
fungi
Polyphyletic group of organisms that share characteristics, rather than sharing a single common ancestor
fungi
study of fungi
mycology
the DNA in the nucleus of the fungi is wrapped around this, as also observed in other eukaryotic cells
histone proteins
few types of fungi have structures comparable to this, also known as loops of DNA
bacterial plasmids
Horizontal transfer of genetic information from one mature bacterium to another rarely occurs in fungi
true or false
true
contain mitochondria and a complex system of internal membranes, including the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus
fungal cells
Unlike plants, do not have chloroplasts or chlorophyll
fungi
many of these display bright colors arising from other cellular pigments, ranging from red to green to black
fungi
Some fungal pigments are toxic
fungi
also known as fly agaric, recognizable by its bright red cap with white patches
Amanita muscaria
pigments in fungi are often associated with this cellular structure, and play a protective role against UV radiation
cell wall
Like animal cells, fungal cells also have a thick cell wall
true or false
true
protect the cell from desiccation and predators
cell wall
complex polysaccharides that make up rigid layers of fungal cell walls
chitin and glucans
also found in the exoskeleton of insects, give structural strength to the cell walls of fungi
chitin
fungi have a plasma membrane similar to other eukaryotes, except that it is stabilized by this
ergosterol
Steroid molecule that replaces the cholesterol found in animal cell membranes
ergosterol
flagella are produced only by the gametes in this primitive phylum of fungi
what phylum
Phylum Chytridiomycota
can be unicellular or multicellular
vegetative body of a fungus
type of fungi that can change from the unicellular to multicellular state depending on environmental conditions
dimorphic
generally referred to as yeasts
unicellular fungi
also known as baker’s yeast
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
agents of thrush, a common fungal infection
candida species
Two distinct morphological stages of multicellular fungi
vegetative
reproductive
consist of a tangle of slender thread-like structures called hyphae
morphological stage of fungi
vegetative
morphological stage of fungi that can be conspicuous
morphological stage of fungi
reproductive
mass of a hyphae, can grow on surface, in soil, or decaying material, in a liquid, or even on living tissue
mycelium
Fungal hyphae can be (2)
septated
coenocytic
coeno means
common
coeno means “common”, cytic means “cell”, with many nuclei present in a single hyphae
coenocytic
called honey mushroom, considered as the largest organism on Earth, spreading across more than 2,000 acres of underground soil in eastern Oregon
Armillaria solidipes
endwalls that separate most fungal hyphae
septa
In most fungi, tiny holes of these allow for the rapid flow of nutrients and small molecules from cell to cell along the hypha (perforated septa)
septa
also known as bread molds, have hyphae that are not separated by septa, instead they are formed by large cells containing many nuclei, an arrangement described as coenocytic hyphae
zygomycota
fungi thrive in this environment, and can grow with or without light
moist and slightly acidic
most fungi are these, requires oxygen to survive
obligative anaerobes
reside in the rumen of cattle, are obligate anaerobes
Chytridiomycota
use anaerobic respiration because oxygen will disrupt their metabolism or kill them
Obligate anaerobes
intermediate, being facultative anaerobes, meaning that they grow best in the presence of oxygen using aerobic respiration, but can survive using anaerobic respiration when oxygen is not available
yeast
Alcohol produced in this is used in wine and beer production
yeast
like animals, fungi are these, which use complex organic compounds as a source of carbon, rather than fixing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere as do some bacteria and most plants
heterotrophs
fungi do not fix these, but instead get these from their diet
nitrogen
precedes ingestion, present in fungi (reverse in animals)
digestion
transported out of the hyphae, where they process nutrients in the environment
exoenzymes
after exoenzymes process nutrients in the environment, the smaller molecules are absorbed by this
Mycelium
polysaccharide of storage of fungal cells, rather than starch, fond in plants
Glycogen
organisms that derive nutrients from decaying organic matter
Saprobes
– obtain nutrients from dead or decomposing organic matter: mainly plant material
fungi
able to break down insoluble polysaccharides, such as the cellulose and lignin of dead wood, into readily absorbable glucose molecules
fungal exoenzymes
Elements released onto the environment by fungi:
Carbon
Nitrogen
Other elements
fulfill an important ecological role and are being investigated as potential tools in bioremediation
Fungi
Some species can be used to break down diesel oil and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
Fungi
heavy metals that fungi can take up
cadmium
lead
Parasitic, infecting other plants and animals
fungi
fungi that affect plants (2)
smut
dutch elm disease
medically important fungal infections in humans
Athlete’s foot and candidiasis (truth)
in environment poor in nitrogen, some fungi resort to predation of these
nematodes
Small non-segemented roundworms
nematodes
species of them have a number of mechanisms to trap nematodes
Arthrobotrys
One involve chaonstricting rings within the network of hyphae, wherein the rings swell when they touch the nematode, gripping it in a tight hold
Arthrobotrys
specialized hyphae that fungi uses to penetrate the tissue of the worm
Haustoria
reproduce both sexually and asexuall
perfect fungi
reproduce only asexually (by mitosis)
imperfect fungi
in both sexual and asexual reproduction, fungi produce spores that disperse from the parent organism by either floating on the wind or hitching a ride on an animal
spores
smaller and lighter than plant seeds
fungal spores
primarily infects lungs but can spread to other tissues, causing histoplasmosis, a potentially fatal disease
Histoplasma capsulatum
– kind of mushroom that burst open and releases trillion of spores
giant puffball mushroom
The huge number of spores released increases the likelihood of landing in an environment that will support
growth
true or false
true
Fungi reproduce asexually by (3)
Fragmentation
Budding
Producing spores
in yeast, produces buds, wherein during budding, a bulge forms in the side of the cell, the nucleus divides mitotically, and the bud ultimately detaches itself from the mother cell
somatic cells
most common mode of asexual is through the formation of this, which are produced by one parent only (through mitosis) and are genetically identical to the parent
asexual spores
Originate in the fragmentation of hypha to form single cells that are released as spores
asexual spores
Have thick wall surrounding the fragment
asexual spores
allow fungi to expand their distribution and colonize new environments
spores
spores may be released from parent thallus either outside or within a special reproductive sac called ____
sporangium
Type of asexual spores (2)
conidiospore
sporangiospore
unicellular or multicellular spores that are released directly from the tip or side of the hypha
conidiospore
asexual spores produced in a sporangium
sporangiospore
method of reproduction that introduces genetic variation into a population of fungi
sexual reproduction
Often occurs in response to adverse environmental conditions
sexual reproduction
during sexual reproduction two mating types
homothallic
heterothallic
both mating types occurs in the same mycelium during sexual fungal reproduction (self-fertile)
homothallic
require two different, but compatible mycelia to reproduce sexually
heterothallic
Three stages of fungal reproduction
plasmogamy
karyogamy
meiosis
literally means “marriage or union of cytoplasm”
plasmogamy
Two haploid cells fuse leading to a dikaryotic stage where two haploid nuclei coexist in a single cell
which stage of fungal reproduction
plasmogamy
means “nuclear marriage”, the haploid nuclei fuse to form a diploid zygote nucleus
karyogamy
occurs in the gametangia (singular, gametangium) organs, in which gametes of different mating types are generated
meiosis
Stage where spores are disseminated into the environment
fungal reproduction
meiosis
Five major phyla consists kingdom Fungi, were established according to their mode of what
sexual reproduction or using molecular data
sixth group, polyphyletic unrelated fungi that reproduce without a sexual cycle are placed here
form phylum
its sequencing continue to show new and different relationships between categories of fungi
18S rRNA
Five true phyla of fungi
Chytridiomycota
Zygomycota
Ascomycota
Basidiomycota
Glomeromycota
chytrids phyla
chytridiomycota
conjugated fungi phyla
zygomycota
sac fungi phyla
ascomycota
club fungi
basidiomycota
older classification scheme group this fungi that strictly use asexual reproduction into this
Deuteromycota
only class in this phylum are the chytridiomycetes
Chytridiomycota
simplest, most recognizable primitive eumycota, or true fungi
Chytrids
First appeared during the late pre-cambrian period, more than 500 million years ago
Chytridiomycota
Have chitin on their cell walls, but one group has both cellulose and chitin in the cell wall
Chytridiomycota
Unicellular; a few form multicellular organisms and hyphae, which have no septa between cells (coenocytic)
Chytridiomycota
Produce gametes and diploid zoospores that swim with the help of single flagellum
Chytridiomycota
ecological habitat and cell structure of chytrids have much in common with this
protists
chytrids usually live in these environments, although some live on land
aquatic environments
chytrids species thrive as what on plants, insects, or amphibians, while others are saprobes
parasites
well characterized as an experimental organism, its reproductive cycle includes both asexual and sexual phases
allomyces
Produce diploid or haploid flagellated zoospores in a sporangium
allomyces
are in a relatively small group of fungi, include the familiar bread mold, Rhizopus stolonifera, which rapidly propagates on the surfaces of breads, fruits, and vegetables
Phylum Zygomycota
Most species are saprobes, living off decaying organic material
Phylum Zygomycota
Few are parasites, particularly of insects
Phylum Zygomycota
metabolic products of some species of these are intermediates in the synthesis of semi-synthetic steroid hormone
Rhizopus
Rhizopus belong to what phylum
Rhizopus
Thallus of Coenocytic hyphae in which the nuclei are haploid when the organism is in the vegetative stage
Phylum Zygomycota
Usually reproduce asexually by producing sporangiospores
Zygomycota
have aseuxal and sexual life cycles, in the sexual life cycle, plus and minus mating types conjugate to form a ____
zygomycetes
the black tips of the bread mold are these, packed with black spores
Sporangia
when spores land on a suitable substrate, they germinate and produce a new what
Mycelium
starts when conditions become unfavorable
sexual reproduction
Two opposing mating strains (type + and type -) must be in close proximity for gametogangia from the hyphae to be produced and fuse, leading to _____
karyogamy
this developing spores have thick coats that protect them from desiccation and other hazards
zygospores
Remain dominant until environmental conditions are favorable
zygospores
When this germinates, it undergoes meiosis and produces haploid spores, which will, in turn, grown into a new organism
zygospores
form of sexual reproduction in fungi (differs markedly from conjugation in bacteria and protists)
conjugation
Gives rise to the name “conjugated fungi”
conjugation
majority of fungi belong to this phylum, which is characterized by the formation of an ascus (plural, asci)
ascomycota
lifecycle is characterized by the production of asci during the seuxal phase
ascomycota
predominant phase of ascomycota’s life cycle
haploid or diploid?
haploid
Parasitize plants and animals, including humans
ascomycetes
Not only infest and destroy crops directly; they also produce poisonous secondary metabolites that make crops unfit for consumption
ascomycota
sac-like structure that contains haploid ascospores
ascus
Ascomycetes are of commercial importance:
yeast
truffles and morels
used in baking, brewing, and wine fermentation
yeast
gourmet delicacies) of ascomycetes
truffles and morels
used in the fermentation of rice to produced sake
Aspergillus oryzae
fungal that poses a significant thread to AIDS patients who have a compromised immune system
pneumonia
produce hyphae divided by perforated septa, allowing streaming of cytoplasm from one cell to another
filamentous ascomycetes
spores used by ascomycetes for asexual reproductiopn
conidiospores
spores used by ascomycetes for sexual reproduction
asci
separates the conidia and asci from the vegetative hyphae
blocked septa
in ascomycetes, are frequent and involves production of conidiophores that release haploid conidiospores
asexual reproduction
in ascomycetes, start with the development of special hyphae from either one of two types of mating strains
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
male produces an
antheridium
female strain develops an
ascogonium
at fertilization, stage where antheridium and ascogonium combine without nuclear fusion
plasmogamy
hyphae that arises after plasmogamy in ascomycetes, in which pairs of nuclei
ascogenous hyphae
migrate: one from the “male” strain
and one from the “female” strain
ascogenous hyphae
in this stage, two or more haploid ascospores fuse their nuclei
karyogamy
fruiting body filled by asci
ascocarp
stage where the diploid nucleus gives rise to haploid nuclei
meiosis
released after meiosis, germinate, and form hyphae that are disseminated in the environment and start a new mycelia
ascospores
easily recognizable under light microscope by their club-shaped fruiting bodies called basidia
basidiomycota
rust and smuts belong to what phyla
basidiomycota
➢toadstools
➢shelf fungi
what phyla
basidiomycota
swollen, terminal cell of hypha in basidiomycetes
basidia
reproductive organs of fungi, are often contained within the familiar mushroom, commonly seen in fields after rain, on the supermarket shelves, growing on your lawn
basidia
basidiomycyes are sometimes referred to as this, because of the presence of gill-like structures on the underside of the cap
gill fungi
gills of the basidiomyces are actually this, on which the basidia are borne
compacted hyphae
basidiomycetes includes this, which cling to the bark of trees like small shelves
shelf fungus
causes severe respiratory illness
cryptococcus neoformans
lifecycle of basidiomycetes feature this, wherein spores are generally produced through sexual reproduction, rather than asexual reproduction
alternation of generations
dikaryotic stage of basidiomyces is the _____
dominant or recessive?
dominant stage
club-shaped basidium spores
basidiospores
mycelium that results from the generation and germination of monokaryotic hyphae
primary mycelium
mycelia of different mating strains can combine and produce this, containing haploid nuclei of two different mating strains
secondary mycelium
generates a basidiocarp, which is a fruiting body that protrudes from the ground
secondary mycelium
bears the developing basidia on the gills under its cap
basidiocarp
while deuteromycota used to be a classification group, recent molecular analysis has shown that the members classified in this group belong to this phyla
basidiomycota or asexual mycota
most live on land, with some aquatic exceptions
basidiomycota
form visible mycelia with a fuzzy appearance known as mold
basidiomycota
strictly asexual and occurs mostly by production of asexual conidiospores
basidiomycota
some may recombine and form heterokaryotic hyphae
basidiomycota
genetic recombination is known to take place between the different nuclei
basidiomycota
cheese are result of fungal growth
roquefort cheese and camembert
originally discovered on overgrown petri plate, on which a colony of penicillium fungi killed the bacterial growth surrounding it
penicillin
released by fungi of genus Aspergillus, producers of toxic compounds
alfatoxins
newly established phylum which comprises about 230 species that all live in close association with the roots of trees
glomeromycota
Do not reproduce sexually and do not survive without the presence of plant roots
glomeromycota
Coenocytic hyphae but they do not form zygospores
glomeromycota
Probably descended from a common ancestor, making them a monophyletic lineage
glomeromycota
all members of family of glomeromycotan form this
arbuscular mycorrhizae
Hyphae interact with the root cells forming a mutually beneficial association where the plants supply the carbon source and energy in the form of carbohydrates to the fungus, and the fungus supplies essential minerals from the soil to the plant
Arbuscular mycorrhizae
group of plants that are closest extant relative of early terrestrial plants
bryophytes
Lack lignin and other resistant structures, therefore it forming fossils is rather small
bryohpytes
Do not have tracheids (xylem cells specialized for water conduction), water instead circulate inside specialized conducting cells
bryophyte
Thrive in mostly damp habitats, although some live in deserts
bryophyte
Constitute major flora of inhospitable environments like tundra, where their small size and tolerance to desiccation offer distinct advantages
bryohphyte
Called non-vascular plants
bryophyte
including the photosynthetic leaf-like structures, the thallus, stem,
and the rhizoid that anchors the plant to its substrate – belong to the haploid organism or gametophyte
vegetative organs
is barely noticeable in bryohphytes
sporophyte
formed by them swim in a flagellum in bryophytes
gametes
first bryophytes that appeared in the Ordovician period, about 450 million years ago
liverworts
protects spores leading to their survival and attributed to early bryophytes
sporopollenin
by this period, vascular plants have spread through the continents
silurian
multicellular sexual reproductive structure present in bryophytes and absent in the majority of algae
sporangium
part of the bryophyte that remains attached to the parent plant, which protects and nourishes it
embryo
Three phyla of bryophytes
Liverworts or hepaticophyta
Hornworts or athocerotophyta
Mosses or true bryophyta (musci)
also known as hepaticophyta, are viewed as the plants most closely related to the ancestor that moved to land
liverworts
colonized every terrestrial habitat on Earth and diversified to more than 7000
existing species
hepaticophyta
gametophyte form lobate green structures, similar to the lobes of the liver, and hence provides the origin of the name given to the phylum
hepaticophyta
openings that allow the movement of gases may be observed in
hepaticophyta
plant takes up water over its entire surface and has no cuticle to prevent dessication
what bryophyte
hepaticophyta
The cycle starts with the release of haploid spores from the sporangium that developed on the sporophyte. Spores disseminated by wind or water germinate into flattened thalli attached to the substrate by thin, single-celled filaments. Male and female gametangia develop on separate, individual plants.
what type of bryophte
hepaticophyta
male gametes swim to the female gametangium with the aid of this
flagella
zygote grows into this still attached to the parent gametophyte
sporophyte
liverworts can reproduce asexually by breaking of branches and spreading of leaf fragments called this
gemmae
small, intact, complete pieces of plant that are produced in a cup on the surface of the thallus
gemmae
also known as anthocerotophyta, colonized a variety of habitats on land, although they are never farm from source of moisture
hornworts
dominant is the short, blue-green gametophyte
hornworts
narrow pipe-like sporophyte is the defining characteristic of the group
hornworts
establish symbiotic relationships with cyanobacteria that fix nitrogen with the environment
hornworts
follows a general pattern of alternation of generations
hornworts
emerge from the parent gametophyte and continue to grow throughout the life of the plant
sporophyte
appear in hornworts and are abundant on the sporophyte
stomata
grow as flat thalli on the soil with embedded gametangia
what part in hornwort
gametophyte
thin cells in hornworts that surround the spores and help propel them further in the environment
pseudoelaters
single-celled structure unlike in horsetails
pseudoelaters
habitats vary from the tundra, where they are the main vegetation, to the understory of tropical forests
mosses
slow down erosion, store moisture, and soil nutrients, and provide shelter for small animals as well as food for larger herbivores, such as the musk ox
mosses
verry sensitive to air pollution, used to monitor air quality
mosses
sensitive to copper salts, so these salts are a common ingredient of compounds marketed to eliminate mosses from lawns
mosses
form diminutive gametophytes (dominant phase of the life cycle)
mosses
mosses part where it allows them to fasten to a substrate without penetrating the frozen soil
rhizoids
precursor of roots
rhizoids
part of the moss where green, flat structures-resembling true leaves are attached to this
central stalk
primitive traits of green algae, are present in mosses that are dependent on water for reproduction
flagellated sperm
in mosses, these are present and a primitive vascular system run up its stalk
sporophyte
tangle of single-celled filaments that hug the ground, first formed by a haploid spore of mosses
protonema
contains tubular cells that transfer nutrients from the base of the sporophyte to the sporangium or capsule
setae
structure that increases the spread of spores after the tip of the capsule falls off at dispersal
peristome
the concentric tissue around the mouth of the capsule is made of triangular, close-fitting units, a little like “teeth”; these open and close depending on moisture levels, and periodically release spores.
peristome
