finals studyguide Flashcards
anatomy
study of structure of the body
physiology
study of function of the body
integumentary
waterproofs, cushions
skeletal
framework and protection
muscular
movement, provides heat
nervous
control system, responds to stimuli
endocrine
hormones; glands
cardiovascular
delivers oxygen and nutrients, removes wastes, pumps blood, distributes heat
lymphatic
return tissue fluid to blood, cleanse blood, WBCs provide immunity, providing protection
respiratory
supplies oxygen and removes carbon dioxide; gas exchange
digestive
breaksdown food, reabsorbs nutrients, and excretes wastes
urinary
removes nitrogen containing waste from blood, maintains water and salt balance, regulates blood pressure
reproductive
produce offspring
5 survival needs
nutrients, oxygen, water, normal body temp, and atmospheric pressure
dorsal body cavity
cranial and spinal cavity
ventral body cavity
thoracic cavity (diaphragm and mediastinum - heart and lungs), abdominopelvic cavity (abdomen, pelvis - stomach, liver, reproductive bladder)
negative feedback
shut off original stimulus or reduce intensity; homeostasis
structure of an atom (subatomic particles)
protons, neutrons, electrons
protons
nucleus, positive
neutrons
nucleus, no charge
electrons
outside nucleus, negative
ionic bond
when electrons are transferred from one atom to another
polar covalent bond
2 charged poles; electrons are not shared equally
nonpolar covalent bond
electrons shared equally
hydrogen bonds
weakest bonds; hydrogen atoms attracted to negative portion of polar molecule; forms intramolecular bonds
electrolytes
ions that carry a charge
organic compounds
contains carbon; carbs, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids; large
inorganic compounds
lack carbon except carbon dioxide; will not burn; water, salt, acids and bases; small
pH
power of hydrogen ions; based on number of protons
acids
electrolytes that ionize in water and release hydrogen ions; proton donors
bases
electrolytes ionize in water and release hydroxide ions; proton acceptors
carbs
simple sugars and starch; major energy fuel
lipids
fatty acids and glycerol; cushions organs and provides reserved fuel (in every cell membrane)
proteins
amino acids and polypeptides; provide for construction materials for enzymes, hormones, and antibodies
monomer
small molecules
polymers
chainlike molecules made of monomers
synthesis
building/anabolic; energy is absorbed
decomposition
destruction/catabolic
exchange
simultaneously synthesis and decomposition reactions
chemical composition of cell membrane
two layers of phospholipids, cholesterol (strength), proteins (transport; enzymes; receptors), sugar groups (cell identification - glycoproteins and glycocalyx)
organization of cell membrane
hydrophilic and hydrophobic
DNA replication
genetic material duplicated; in the nucleus; at the end of interphase
complementary nucleotides
A-T and C-G
gene
DNA segment that carries a blueprint for building one protein of polypeptide chain
protein (vs gene)
fibrous (structural) or globular (functional); building materials or enzymes
transcription
transfers info from DNAs base sequence to complementary base sequence of mRNA (making copy inside nucleus)
translation
base sequence of nucleic acid is translated to amino acid sequence (involves all three types - copying cytoplasm outside nucleus)
passive
simple diffusion, osmosis, filtration, faciliter diffusion; doesn’t take energy
active
active transport, vesicular transport; takes ATP
cell cycle
mitosis: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase; cytokinesis
cutaneous membrane
skin
mucous membrane
nose, digestive and respiratory tract; open to outside
serous membrane
outside of major organs
synovial membrane
joints
stratum basale
cells undergoing mitosis; deepest layer; still alive cells; contains melanocytes
stratum spinosum
increasingly flatter and more keratinized (dying); still alive cells
stratum granulosum
transitional layer to nonliving; flattened
stratum lucidum
hairless only areas; formed from dead cells of deeper layers
stratum corneum
outermost layer; filled with keratin;
sebaceous glands
produces sebum for soft hair, soft skin, kills bacteria; found over the skin except palms and soles
sweat glands
armpit and genitals; eccrine: temp regulation; apocrine: body odor (sweat)
hair
not on palms and soles; hard, keratinized epithelial cells
nails
more keratinized than hair; protection
rule of nines
estimates tissue damage and fluid loss
basal cell carcinoma
least malignant and most common; from stratum basale
squamous cell carcinoma
stratum spinosum; by sun and spread to lymph nodes and becomes malignant
malignant melanoma
most deadly and rare; from melanocytes to lymph and blood vessels
axial skeleton
(inner)
cranial bones
facial bones
vertebral column
suture joints
ribs
appendicular skeleton
(outer)
pectoral girdle
upper and lower limb bones
pelvic girdle
shoulder blade/scapula
epiphysis
ends; spongy bone/hematopoiesis; articular cartilage
diaphysis
compact; covered by periosteum
periosteum
fibrous connective membrane around bones
endosteum
connective tissue lining inside of shaft; contains medullary cavity
cervical vertebra
atlas; axis; 3 holes
thoracic vertebra
rotation, meets with ribs
lumbar vertebra
no rotation
sacrum
fuse 16
coccyx
tail bone
synarthroses
immovable; skull; fibrous
amphiarthroses
slightly moveable; spine; cartilage
daithroses
freely moveable; synovial joints
plane joints
spine, carpals
hinge joints
elbow
pivot joints
ulna, radias
condylar joints
metacarpals, metatarsals
saddle joint
thumb
ball and socket joint
shoulder (most movable)
changes in skeletal development
hyaline to compact bone
skeletal muscle
striated
voluntary
multinucleate
tendons to bones
smooth muscle
no striations
involuntary
uninucleate
tubes and digestive tract
cardiac muscle
heart only
involuntary
uninucleate
striated - branching
actin myofilament
I bands; thin; only a space; attacked to z disc - attachment sights
myosin myofilament
A bands; thick; heads form cross bridges
motor unit
1 motor neuron and all skeletal muscle cells stimulated by that neuron
motor neuron
allows contraction
neuromuscular junction
where nerve and muscle fiber meet
origin
fixed, immovable attachment
insertion
movable attachment
prime mover
produces the movement (agonist)
antagonist
oppose or reverse movement
synergist
reduce undesirable or unnecessary movement; aids prime mover
fixator
immobilize origin of prime mover so all tension is exerted at insertion
adduction
toward body
abduction
away from body
circumduction
circular; ball and socket or eye
dorsiflexion
backward bending and contracting of your hand or foot; flexing towards body
plantar flexion
top of your foot points away from your leg; pointing foot away from body
inversion
turning foot inwards
eversion
turning foot outwards
pronation
palm facing down
supination
palm facing up
CNS
command center; brain and spinal cord; interprets incoming info and issues outgoing instruction
PNS
cranial and spinal nerves; communication lines - carries impulses
sensory division (afferent)
nerve fibers carry info to CNS; somatic and visceral
moto division (efferent)
nerve fibers carry impulses away from CNS
somatic nervous system
skeletal muscles; skin and joints
voluntary nervous system
skeletal muscle
autonomic nervous system
involuntary; cardiac and smooth muscle glands; parasympathetic and sympathetic
cell body
nucleus and metabolic center; decision maker
processes of neuron
bring in or send away messages; fibers that extend from cell body; axon and dendrites
myelin sheath
white fatty protein covering axons; Schwann cells wrap around; it protects and insulates nerve fibers and speeds nerve transmissions
generating a nerve impulse (very simplified)
- electric charge opens calcium channels
- calcium enters axon terminal
- neurotransmitter is released
- it enters and diffuses across synaptic cleft
- binds to receptors on membrane of next neuron
- opens ion channels into membrane on second neuron
- graded potential is generated
- then triggers action potential and signal is transmitted to axon terminal of that neuron
dura mater
outermost layer; 2 layers
arachnoid
middle layer; cerebrospinal fluid
pia mater
internal layer
parasympathetic division
brain stem; rest and digest
sympathetic division
spine; epinephrine; fight or flight
fibrous layer of eye
outside; sclera and cornea
vascular layer of eye
middle; choroid (blood vessels)
sensory layer of eye
inside; retina; outer layer absorbs light and prevents scattering and inner layer contains photoreceptors (rods and cones)
rods
vision in dim light and peripheral vision; grey tones
cones
color vision
fovea centralis
densest center on retina
how image forms on retina
- cornea and humors curve and fluid bends the light
- lens: flat = distant; convex = near vision
- ciliary body muscles attach to lens and contracts
- real image is reversed from left to right, upside-down, and smaller than the object
accommodation
lens must change shape to focus on closer objects
astigmatism
images are blurry; unequal curvature of cornea or lens
emmetropia
eyes focus images correctly on retina
hyperopia
convex, farsightedness - near is blurry; eyeball is short - focused behind retina
myopia
concave; nearsightedness - far away is blurry; eyeball is long - focused in front of retina; light fails to reach retina
external ear
pinna
auditory canal
tympanic membrane
midder ear
auditory tube
malleous, incus, stapes
tympanic cavity (tympanic membrane, oval window, round window)
inner ear
sense organs for hearing and balance
cochlea
vestibule
semicircular canals
static equilibrium
maculae; not moving; head moving but body still; vestibule
dynamic equilibrium
head and body moving; crista ampullaris
sensorineural deafness
damage to nervous system structures involving hearing; hairs
conductive deafness
when transmission of sound vibrations through external and middle ears are hindered; fused middle bones - vibrations can’t reach oval window
target organ
target sites where hormone acts
amino acid based hormones
proteins, peptides, amines
steroid hormones
made from cholesterol; cross membrane easily
prostaglandins
made from highly active lipids that act as local hormones
hormonal stimuli
endocrine organs are activated by other hormones (most common)
humoral stimuli
changing blood levels of certain ions and nutrients stimulate hormone release
neural stimuli
nerve fibers stimulate release; under control of sympathetic nervous system (fight or flight)
anterior lobe
glandular tissue; produces releasing hormones; proteins or peptides;
hypothalamus - releasing hormone; pituitary gland - stimulating hormone
posterior lobe
nervous tissue; making products and stores; sending nerve to be stored and hormone released; oxytocin and ADH
plasma
90% water; plasma proteins; distributes body heat
blood clotting process/hemostasis
- vascular spasms
- platelet plug formation
- coagulation
*prothrombin (inactive) -> thrombin (active) to fibrinogen ->fibrin
antigens
self of foreign
antibodies
recognizers that bind foreign antigens
pathway of blood through heart
superior and inferior vena cava and coronary sinus - right atrium - tricuspid valve - right ventricle - pulmonary semilunar valve - pulmonary trunk artery - lungs - pulmonary veins - left atrium - bicuspid valve - left ventricle - aortic semilunar valve - ascending aorta artery
intrinsic conduction system
internal, independent control system of heart
sinus node
pacemaker for heart
atrioventricular node
junction of right atria and ventricles
bundle of his
bundle branches in intraventricular septum
purkinje fibers
spread within ventricle wall muscles
tunica intima
lines the lumen of a vessel and is a single thin layer of endothelium
tunica media
bulky middle layer of mainly smooth muscle and elastic tissue; changing diameter of blood vessels
tunica externa
outermost tunic and composed of fibrous connective tissue; supports and protects the vessel
innate defense (nonspecific)
protects against wide varieties of invaders
adaptive defense (specific)
fights invaders that get past innate
steps in the inflammatory response
redness
heat
pain
swelling
*damaged cells release chemicals - phagocytes and WBCs move into area
B lymphs
produce antibodies and oversee humoral immunity; mature in bone marrow; can bind to specific antigen and make copies of itself
T lymphs
cell mediated; mature in thymus; do not make antigens
antigen presenting cells
engulf antigens and present fragments on their cell surfaces to be recognized by T cells (B lymphs, macrophages, dendritic cells)
allergies
the immune system overreacts to a harmless antigen
autoimmune diseases
occurs when body’s self tolerance breaks down and the body produces auto-antibodies and sensitized T lymphs that attack its own tissues
immunodeficiencies
may be congenital or acquired; result from abnormalities in any immune element
AIDS
caused by a virus that attacks and cripples the helper T cells
SCID
congenital
organs of respiratory tract
Nose
Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea
Bronchi
Lungs—alveoli
cellular respiration
use of oxygen to produce ATP and CO2
external respiration
gas exchange between pulmonary blood and alveoli (blood and body exterior); diffusion
internal respiration
gas exchange between blood and cells inside the body
pulmonary ventilation
breathing
inspiration
air flowing in
expiration
air flowing out
tidal volume
normal quiet breathing
vital capacity
total amount of exchangeable air
expiratory reserve volume
forcibly exhale too much after tidal volume
inspiratory reserve volume
forcibly inhaling too much over tidal volume
residual air
air remains in lungs and can’t voluntarily be expelled
non respiratory air movements
cough and sneeze - clears debris
crying and laughing - emotionally induced
hiccups - sudden inspirations
yawn - very deep inspirations
how oxygen is transported in blood
travels attached to hemoglobin and forms oxyhemoglobin in RBCs
how carbon dioxide is transported in blood
transported in plasma as bicarbonate ion
accessory digestive organs
teeth
salivary glands
pancreas
liver and galbladder
how foodstuffs in digestive tract are mixed and moved along
mouth - ingestion and breakdown
pharynx/esophagus - movement
stomach - chemical breakdown
small intestine - segmentation
colon - absorb water
rectum/anus - defecation
mouth enzymes
amylase
stomach enzymes
pepsin
pancreas enzymes
amylase, lactase, pepsin
large intestine enzymes
none; just bacteria
carbs use in cell metabolism
make ATP; glucose in blood
fats use in cell metabolism
provide reserve energy and protect/insulate body
proteins use in cell metabolism
amino acids can make ATP as well
metabolic roles of liver
bile production; emulsifier; “evil g words”
composition of normal urine
sodium, potassium, ammonia, bicarbonate ions, urea, uric acid, creatinine
composition of abnormal urine
glucose, blood proteins, RBC, WBC, hemoglobin, bile
ADH
prevents excess water loss in urine and increases water absorption
aldosterone
regulates sodium and potassium by absorbing a chloride ion and secreting a potassium ion for every sodium ion absorbed
3 main fluid compartments of the body
intracellular fluid
extracellular fluid (lymph)
plasma (blood)
reproductive organs
produce gametes and secrete hormones
sperm
produced in testes and goes to epididymus to mature
pathway of sperm
epididymis - ductus deferens - ejaculatory duct - urethra
diploid
46; 2n
haploid
23; n
spermatogenesis
creating sperm
oogenesis
producing ova
vesicular follicle
growing follicle with a maturing oocyte
corpus luteum
follicle minus ejected egg
FSH
matures egg
LH
causes ovulation
events during fertilization
sperm and egg -> zygote -> embryo (after 13 weeks) -> fetus
stages of birth
contraction
dilation - longest stage
expulsion
placental stage
