Final Exam(LO1-LO5) Flashcards
definition: begins with a specific observation and draws a general conclusion
inductive reasoning
definition: generalizes a specific fact to all possible examples which may or may not be valid
inductive leap
Inductive reasoning goes from what to what?
specific observation –> general conclusion
definition: begins with a well established premise and draws conclusions based on that infromation
deductive reasoning
This reasoning is hypothesis building
inductive reasoning
This reasoning uses theory to make predictions
deductive reasoning
Deductive reasoning goes from what to what?
general principle –> specific conlcusion
What are the steps of the scientific method?
- an observation or problem leads to a question
- a testable hypothesis and prediction is developed
- an experiment is performed
- data is analyzed
-conclusions are drawn
definition: a tentative explanation for observation of the natural world
scientific hypothesis
What are the critical properties of a scientific hypothesis?
- needs to be tested by observation or experimentation
-can be rejected if unsupported - can never be proven true(just well supported)
definition: a comprehensive explanation of some phenomenon in nature that is supported by facts
scientific theory
definition: pure chemical substance consisting of only one atom
element
definition: elements responsible for >96%
essential elements
definition: elements that are critical but found in small amounts
trace elements
definition: number of protons an atom has
atomic number
definition: mass of al of the subatomic particles of an atom
atomic mass
How do you find the atomic mass?
add protons and neutrons
definition: atoms of the same element that have different neutron numbers
isotopes
definitio: unstable isotopes that decay over time to more stable isotopes
radioisotopes
valence electrons have what?
the most eneergy
definition: bond that forms when atoms share valence electrons to fill their valence shells
covalent bonds
covalent bonds are what kind of bonds?
strong and stable
what are the two types of covalent bonds?
nonpolar and polar
definitions: when covalently bonded atoms have similar electronegativities they form
nonpolar
definition: when covalently bonded atoms have different electronegativities they form
polar covalent bonds
bonds between cations and anions
ionic bonds
hydrogen bonds have what kind of attractions
weak
definition: bond that forms when a hydrogen atom with a parital positive is attracted to an atom with a partial negative
hydrogen bonds
Hydrogen bonds are individually ____, but collectively _____
weak; strong
definitions: nonpolar molecules form weak attraction is areas of slight opp charge due to random movement of their electrons
van der waal interactions
Are van der waal interactions strong or weak?
weak
water is a _____- covalent bond
polar
definition: hydrogen bonding to one another
cohesion
definition: hydrogen bonding to other substances
adhesion
Polar and ionic substances are hydrophilic or hydrophobic?
hydrophilic
nonpolar substances are hydrophilic or hydrophobic?
hydrophobic
acids are proton _____ and yield hydrogen ions
donors
bases are proton _____ and yield hydroxide ions
acceptors
definition: indicates H+ concentration
PH
definition: solutions that have a pH of 7 and equal H+ and OH ion concentration
neutral solutions
definition: solutions that have a pH less than 7 and greater H+ ion concentration
acidic solutions
definition: solutions that have a pH greater than 7 and greater OH ion concentration
base solutions
buffers do what in pH
resist changes
What do weak acids and bases do in solution?
do not dissociate completely and don’t affect pH dramatically
What system maintains homeostasis in blood pH?
vertebrate blood buffer system
example of a weak acid
carbonic acid
What does carbonic acid do if blood pH raises?
It will donate their H+ ions and lower pH
example of a weak base
bicarbonate ions
What do bicarbonate ions do if blood pH lowers?
will remove H+ ions from solution which will raise pH
What bond are carbon atoms bonded with to other carbon atoms?
covalent bonds
What are the properties of hydrocarbonds?
- contain C and H
- formed by nonpolar covalent bonds
- hydrophobic and insoluble
definition: a group of atoms that determines the chemical behavior of a molecule
functional group
Name the bond and its property:
O — H
Hydroxyl group and polar
Name the bond and its property:
R — CH3
Methyl group, nonpolar
Name the bond and its property:
C === O
carbonyl group, polar
Name the bond and its property:
C === O — OH (COOH)
Carboxyl group, charged, and acidic
Name the bond and its property:
N – H – H (NH2)
Amino, charged, basic
Name the bond and its property:
P ==O–OH–OH
Phosphate group, charged, acidic
Monomers are covalently bonded through __________ reaction to create polymers
condensation
Polymers are degraded by ________ reactions
hydrolysis
definition: carbohydrate monomers
monosaccharides
monosaccharides have what functional group?
hydroxyl group
Monosaccharides are covalently bonded together by what?
glycosidic linkages
monosaccharides are what?
polar and hydrophilic
examples of energy storage polysaccharides?
- starch in plants
- glycoogen in animals
examples of structural polysaccharides?
- cellulose in plants
- chitin in cell walls of fungi and exoskeleton of arthropods
Lipids consists of which atoms?
C, H, and O
What properties do Lipids normally have?
nonpolar, hydrophobic, and insoluble
definition: the main energy storage for fats
triacylglycerols
What are triacylglycerols made of?
glycerol + three fatty acids joined by covalent ester linkages
definition: a long unbranched hydrocarbon chain with a carboxyl group at one end
fatty acid
definition: fatty acids that have C atoms that are bonded to the max number of H atoms
saturated fatty acids
definitions: fatty acids carbons are not fully saturated with H atoms and have at least one C==double bond
unsaturated fatty acids
What forms cell membranes?
phopholipids
What are phospholipids made of?
polar group, phosphate group, glycerol, two fatty acids
What are phospholipids properties?
they are amphipathic
What does DNA do?
stores information for protein and RNA sequences
What do Nucleic acids do?
- store and transmit hereditary information
- determine which proteins calls make
What does RNA do?
protein synthesis
DNA and RNA are both what?
polymers of nucleotides
What are nucleotides made of?
nitrogenous base, 5-C monosaccharide, and phosphate group
Single ring pyrimidines
Cytosine, thymine, and uracil
double ring purines
adenine and guanine
Phosphate groups make DNA and RNA what?
acidic and negatively charged
What are nucleotides joined by?
phosphodiester linkages
definition: a phosphate group covalently linked to the monosaccharide of the adjacent nucleotide
phosphodiester linkage
What is amino acids structure?
central C bonded to H, an amino group, carboxyl group, and an R group
Amino acids are classified based on the properties of what?
their R groups
amino acids are covalently bonded by _______ bonds
peptide bonds
definition: joins the carboxyl group of one amino acid to the amino group of another amino acid
peptide bond
definition: multiple amino acids covalently bonded by peptide bonds
polypeptide
How many levels of organization do proteins have?
four
definition: linear sequence of amino acids joined by peptide bonds
primary structure
_______ structure determines a protein’s conformation and function
primary
This protein structure is maintained by _________ bonding
hydrogen
definition: forms helical coils in a polypeptide
a - helix
a-helix provides what?
elasticity to proteins
What level of structure is a -helix?
secondary
What level of structure is b-pleated sheet?
secondary
definition: structure that forms when a polypeptide folds back on itself
b-pleated sheet
b-pleated sheets provide what to protein structure?
strength
Both of these protein structures are maintained by hydrogen and ionic bonds, and hydrophobic interactions
tertiary and quaternary structures
definition: protein structure that is the overall shape of a single polypeptide
tertiary
definition: protein structure that happens when two or more polypeptide chains are folded together to form a single protein
quaternary strucutre
3 parts of cell theorys
- basic units of life
- cells come from other cells
- cells evolved from a common ancestor
surface area in a cell
plasma membrane
volume in a cells
cytoplasm
Cells need to have a ______ surface area relative to their volume
large
What does the plasma membrane do?
regulates the movement of material in and out of cells
The volume increases at a _______ rate then its surface area
greater
these cells are smaller and less complex compared to eukaryotes
prokaryotes
prokaryotes lack what?
internal membrane structures including. a nucleus
How is a prokaryotes plasma membrane folded?
inward to increase surface area
Where is DNA found in prokaryotes?
nucleoid region
What structures do prokaryotic cells have
Cell wall, cytoplasm, ribosome, and a cytoskeleton
some have a flagella
eukaryotes are larger and more complex than prokaryotes and include what
nucleus and membrane enclosed organelles
definitions: internal cell membranes divide a cell into compartments that have specific jobs
membrane encolsed organelles
definition: includes all cell components outside of the nucleus
cytoplasm
definition: fluid component of the cytoplasm
cytosol
definition: includes all components within the nucleus
nucleoplasm
definition: site of transcription and ribosome assembly
nucleus
definition: forms the nucleus
nuclear envelope
definition: double membrane that has openings
nuclear envelope
definition: opening in the nuclear envelope
nuclear pores
What doe the nuclear pores do?
regulate the passage of materials between the nucleoplasm and the cytoplasm
chromotin is what?
DNA + protein complex
definition: where ribosomal subunits are assembles
nucleolus
definition: individual pieces of chromatin
chromosomes
What does chromatin do?
keeps the long thing DNA from getting tangled
definition: nonmembranous organelles made from RNA + proteins
ribosomes
Ribosomes consists of what?
large and small subunit
What are ribosomes used for?
protein synthesis
Where are ribosomes located?
in the cytosol or attached to the membranes of the RER or nucleus
definition: a network of membrane bound organelles that exchange material with each other through transport vesicles
endomembrane systems
What is in the endomembrane system?
- plasma membrane
- nucleus
- ER
- Golgi complex
- lysosomes
- peroxisomes
- vesicles and vacuoles
definition: a network of folded membranes that is continuous with the outer nuclear envelope
ER
definition: internal fluid filled space of the ER
lumen
The ER is the origin of what for a cell?
the new membrane
definition: involved in protein synthesis because it has ribosomes attached to its outer surface
rough ER
What happens to proteins that are made on the RER
they are folded and modified in the RER lumen
the smooth ER makes what?
phospholipids, cholesterol and steroid hormones
In the liver the smooth ER does what?
breaks down glycogen to glucose
and detoxifies the liver
definition: modifies and routes proteins from the ER
golgi complex
What is the golgi complex made up of?
stacks of flattened membrane sacs called cisternae
What does the golgi complex do to vesicles received from ER?
chemically modifies and send them to other parts of the endomembrane system
Golgi complex makes what?
lysosomes in animal cells and cell wall polysaccharides in plant cells
once proteins have been modified in the RER lumen they are transported in vesicles to the ____ face of the Golgi
cis
After going through the Golgi vesicles bud off from the ___ side of the Golgi
trans
What happens after vesicles leave trans face of golgi?
- they are transported to plasma membrane in a secretory vesicle and secreted from the cells
- or they become lysosomes
definition: small membranous organelles in animal cells that contain digestive enzymes
lysosomes
They are digestive organelles
lysosomes and peroxisomes
definition: small membranous organelles that break down fatty acids and toxins
peroxisomes
What do lysosomes do?
fuse with other vesicles that contain extracellular or intracellular waste and breaks down the contents
definition: membranous fluid filled sacs that lack internal strutures
vacuoles
definition: water fills the large central vacuole to maintain cell firmness
turgot pressure
evidence shows that mitochondria and chloroplasts descended from?
prokaryotes
similarities of mitochondria and chloroplasts
- double membrane structure
- their own DNA and ribosomes
mitochondria is the site for what?
aerobic respiration
definition: folded to increase mitochondrias surface area
cristae
definition: innermost fluid filled compartment of mitochondria
matrix
Mitochondria regulares what?
apoptosis
chloroplasts are the sites of what?
photosynthesis
definition: contains photosynthetic pigments that capture light energy
chloroplasts
definition: internal membrane that forms stacks in chloroplasts
grana
definition: individual sacs in chloroplasts
theylakoids
definition; fluid filled interior of a thylakoid
thylakoid lumen
definition: fluid filled space outside of the thylakoids
stroma
cytoskeleton does what for the cell?
shapes, strength and mobility
definition: a supporting internal framework of protein filaments
cytoskeleton
What do intermediate filaments do for cell shape?
they strengthen and stabilize it
definition: an intermediate filament in vertebrate epithelial cells
keratin
definition: hollow cylinders made from the protein tubulin
microtubules
What do microtubules do?
shorten or lengthen
definition: where microtubules extend from
MTOC
Each centriole is made up of what arrangement
9x3
MTOC is made up of ___ centrioles
2
microtubules form what?
the spingle that moves condensed chromosomes
cilia and flagella are made form what?
microtubules
What are microtubules anchored by?
basal body
cilia and flagella have what kind of arrangement
9+2
What do microfilaments determine?
cell shape and aid movement
definition: solid fibers made from the protein actin
microfilaments
definition: microfilaments that form cell extensions that increase surface area
microvilli
microfilaments form cell extensions know as what?
pseudopodia
definition: used to capture particles/cells
pseudopodia
definition: involved in muscle contraction and the separation of daughter cells during cell division
microfilament sliding
definition: a gel-like mixture of carbohydrate + fibrous proteins
ECM
animal cells lack a cell wall but have what?
ECM
cell membranes are made of a
bilayer of phospholipids
model where bilayer of phospholipids are constantly in motion
fluid mosaic model
are self-sealing and fuse with other cell membranes
cell membranes
when the cell membrane spontaneously round up to form vesicles
self-sealing
fluidity buffer in animals
cholesterol
cholesterol at low temperatures
acts as a spacer between fatty acid tails
cholesterol restricts
van der walls interactions solidifying the membrane
cholesterol at high temperatures
keeps membranes stable by preventing phospholipids from moving to much
the ___ group of a cholesterol molecule interacts with the ___ head of a phospholipid to limit its movement
polar; polar
_____ proteins are firmly embedded in the lipid bilayer
integral
____ are at either surface of the bilayer
peripheral
integral proteins are
amphipathic
some proteins extend from
one side of a membrane to the other
short carbohydrate chains are often attached to what?
to the extracellular surface of membrane lipids and proteins
short carbohydrate chains form
glycolipids and glycoproteins
cell membranes are permeable to
small nonpolar and some small polar molecules
cell membranes are impermeable to
ions and larger polar molecules
down their concentration gradient
higher to lower concentration
particles are uniformly distributed but continue to move
dynamic equillibrium
diffusion requires a
concentration gradient
when solutions have an equal solute concentration
isotonic
cells that have no net water movement
isotonic
has a higher solute concentration
hypertonic solution
a concentration gradient is a form of ______ energy
potential
osmosis is the _____ of water
diffusion
tendency of a solution to take in water by osmosis
osmotic pressure
high solute concentration = ____ effective water concentration = ____ osmotic pressure
low; high
cells will lose water and shrivel
a
hypertonic solution
_____ proteins form hydrophilic channels for ion and H2O transport
Channel
definition: if a cell wall is present (i.e. plant cell) the plasma membrane will shrink away from the cell wall
plasmolysis
cell will take up water and may burst
hypotonic
has a lower solute concentration
a
hypotonic
hypotonic
channel proteins that transport H2O across cell membranes
aquaporins
can be opened and closed in response to stimuli
ion channels that are gated
___ proteins undergo a conformational change as they transport specific solutes across a cell membrane
carrier
carrier proteins transport more ____ than channel proteins
slowly
active transport moves materials from ___ to ____ concentrations
low to high
_____________ pump transports Na and K ions against their gradient
sodium potassium
sodium-potassium pump establishes an ______ gradient
electrochemical
a ______ group from ATP is required for the pump to change shape
phosphate
ejects substances from cells
exocytosis
vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane and releases its contents outside the cell
exocytosis
uptakes molecules or small cells by surrounding them with plasma membrane
endocytosis
a ______ forms around the engulfed particles
vesicle
a cell ingests a large particle (bacteria, food)
phagocytocis
dissolved materials enter a cell enclosed in plasma membrane and gradually leak out
pinocytosis
in this form of endocytosis membrane proteins with specific receptors bind with specific molecules to bring them into a cell
receptor-mediated endoxytosis
______ is transported in the blood inside of LDL particles and is taken into cells via ____________
cholesterol, receptor mediated endocytosis
how is cholesterol transported inside blood
- LDL particles bind to specific receptors on plasma membrane
receptors and LDL particles are taken into the cell in a vesicle
3&4. receptors are recycled back to the plasma membrane via a vesicle
LDL particles are degraded by lysosomes
membrane proteins from adjacent epithelial cells extend into the extracellular matrix and hold cells together
anchoring junctions
prevent the passage of materials through the extracellular spaces between epithelial cells
tight junctions
makes the lining of the intestines and blood-brain barrier
tight junctions
hold cells together and allow for the exchange of ions and small molecules
cell junctions
membrane proteins form channels between adjacent cell
gap junctions
this is in animals, cardiac muscles cells, some nerve cells
gap junctions
openings through the cell walls that connect the cytoplasms of adjacent plant cells
plasmodesmata
facilitated diffusion is a form of _____ transport
passive
concentration gradients are established by
active transport
concentration gradients require
energy to build
involve membrane proteins that may be linked to their cell’s cytoskeleton
cell junctions
Four steps of cell signaling
- signal transmission
- reception
- signal transduction
- response
definition: cell synthesize and secrete signal molecules that are received by target cells
signal transmission
definition: one that has a receptor that can bind with a specific signal molecules
target cell
signal molecules are usually what but can also be what?
hydrophilic; hydrophobic
examples of signal molecules that are hydrophobic?
protein hormones
What are examples of signal molecules that are. hydrophilic?
steroid hormones
What happens if the transmitting cell and target cell are not in close proximity?
the signal molecule must be transported through the blood and fluid in animals
definition:during this process a signal molecule binds to and activates its specific receptor
reception
definition: signal molecule once it binds
ligand
the receptor is usually what?
integral plasma membrane protien
extracellular domain is for what?
binding
intracellular domain does what?
transmits the infrormation
Where are receptors for hydrophobic signal molecules?
intracellular in the cytosol or nucleus
receptors that are hydrophilic are typically transcription factors that do what?
regulate gene expression
What are receptors synthesized and degraded by?
lysosomes
signal transduction is from what to what?
extracellular to intracellular signal
definition: the information carried by an extracellular signal molecule is converted into an intracellular signal
signal transduction
What occurs without the signal molecule ever entering the target cell?
signal transduction
When does signal transduction begin?
when the intracellular domain of a receptor is altered due to ligand binding
What are the happens after G protein linked receptors are activated
- bind to and activate G proteins
- which activates the enzyme adenylyl cyclase
- cyclase catalyzes the formation of the second messenger cAMP
defintion: small molecules produced in large quantities that help relay and amplify the signal inside a cell
second messengers
during the signal transduction process what happens to the signal?
it is amplified
What does cAMP do?
activates a protein kinase
definition: enzymes that activate other proteins by phosphorylating them
kinases
definition: enzymes the remove p groups from proteins typically deactivating them
phosphatases
What is cholera caused by?
unterminated cell signals
What happens when someone has cholera?
- the toxin binds to G protein linked receptors in epithelial cells (sustained activation of G protiens)
- results in production of too many cAMP molecules that activate too many protein kinases
- kinases control Cl- ion channels ( too many Cl- leave)
- water leaves by osmosis and people have severe diarrhea and dehydration
What are the cell responses from cell signaling?
- ion channels may open or close
- enzyme activity may be changed
- genes can be activated or repressed
what happens when ion channels open or close?
motor neuron release ACh that bind to receptors
the binding opens Na+ channels which may result in muscle contraction
what happens when enzyme activity may be changed?
bacteria release molecules that bind to receptors and the binding activates enzymes that assemble microfilaments
What happens when genes can be activated or repressed?
steroid hormones bind to intracellular receptors that then bind to DNA to turn genes on or off controlling development
