Final Exam Flashcards
1
Q
When is erythropeoietin stimulated and what does it do?
A
EPO is stimulated with there are low blood oxygen levels. it is released by the kidneys and stimulates red blood marrow of the long bone to increase RBC’s. more red blood cells will increase the o2 carrying ability of the blood.
2
Q
Hemocytoblasts
A
the stem cells where all blood cells originate. they are in the bone marrow of the long bones
3
Q
erythropoiesis
A
the synthesis of red blood cells
4
Q
hematopoiesis is _______ it occurs in the _________
A
blood cell formation, red bone marrow
5
Q
primary function of red blood cells?
A
carry oxygen through the body.
6
Q
what is the protein in blood that makes it red and binds easily and reversibly with oxygen?
A
hemoglobin
7
Q
_______ a glycoprotein hormone, stimulates the formation of erythrocytes
A
Erythropoietin (EPO),
8
Q
what blood type is considered the universal donor?
A
Type O-
9
Q
what blood type is considered the universal recipient?
A
Type AB +
10
Q
An ______ is anything the body perceives as foreign and that generates an immune response
A
antigen
11
Q
The presence or absence of various _______ allows a person’s blood cells to be classified into each of these different blood groups
A
antigens
12
Q
The ABO blood groups are based on the presence or absence of two agglutinogens:
A
type A and type B
13
Q
The _____________, which has neither agglutinogen, is the most common ABO group in North America.
A
O blood group
14
Q
Unique to the ABO blood groups is the presence in the plasma of preformed antibodies called _____________
A
agglutinins
15
Q
The agglutinins act against RBCs carrying ABO antigens that are not present on a person’s own red blood cells.
A
True
16
Q
O blood means they do not have the
A
A or B antigens
17
Q
O has anti __ and anti __ antibodies.
A
A, B
18
Q
AB blood has A and B _____ and does NOT have_______
A
antigen, anti A and anti B antibodies.
19
Q
what antigens is on
type A blood? and what type of antibodies?
A
A, anti-B antibody
20
Q
what antigens is on type B blood? and what type of antibodies?
A
B, Anti A antibody
21
Q
what antigens is on
type AB blood? and what type of antibodies?
A
AB, neither antibody
22
Q
what antigens is on
type O blood? and what type of antibodies?
A
no antigens, both anti-A and anti-B antibodies
23
Q
What is the sequence of the conducting system in the heart?
A
AV node, SA node, bundle of His, bundle branches, Purkinje fibers
24
Q
The conduction system of the heart is all
A
spontaneous
25
What makes the SA node the pacemaker
it keeps the pace of the heart, it is spontaneous and has more action potentials than anywhere in the heart.
26
Normal cardiac muscle cells need to be _______, they are not spontaneous
activated
27
Never Let Monkeys Eat Bananas
Neutrophils, Lymphocytes, Monocytes, Eosinophils, Basophils
in order of most common to least common white blood cells
28
Neutrophil – multi-lobed nucleus – elevated during
acute bacterial infection
29
lymphocytes have large nuclei and play a huge role in
immunity
30
Monocytes have a kidney bean shaped nucleas – elevated during
chronic bacterial infection
31
Eosinophils have a ______ lead the counterattack against ________
bi-lobed nucleus, parasitic worms
32
basophils secrete ____________ elevated when you have an infection
histamine and heperain
33
we need _________ for blood clotting
calcium
34
when there is low calcium ________ will slow
blood clotting
35
when there is high calcium, _______ will be fast
blood clotting
36
what vitamin is needed for clotting
vitamin K
37
coagulation or blood clotting may be initiated by either
instrinsic or extrinsic pathways.
38
intrinsic pathways of blood clotting
Called intrinsic because the factors needed for clotting are present within (intrinsic to) the blood.
Triggered by negatively charged surfaces activated platelets, collagen, or glass.
Slower because it has many intermediate steps
39
The extrinsic pathway of blood clotting is
Called extrinsic because the tissue factor it requires is outside of blood.
Triggered by exposing blood to a factor found on cells in tissues surrounding the blood vessel. This factor is called tissue factor (TF) or factor III.
Faster because it bypasses several steps of the intrinsic pathway. In severe tissue trauma, it can form a clot in 15 seconds.
40
both pathways of blood clotting, intrinsic and extrinsic need
vitamin K and calcium
41
what is Hemostasis
a whole series of events involved in stopping the bleeding
42
what are the 3 steps of coagulation?
vascular spasm, platelet plug, coagulation
43
Platelet plugs are
clumps of platelets, there to seal off small tears
44
The third step, coagulation or blood clotting, reinforces the platelet plug with
fibrin threads that act as a “molecular glue” for the aggregated platelets
45
____________ that traps blood cells and effectively seals the hole until the blood vessel can be permanently repaired
a fibrin mesh
46
Thrombin catalyzes the transformation of the soluble clotting factor fibrinogen into fibrin. The fibrin molecules then polymerize (join together) to form long, hairlike, insoluble fibrin strands. (Notice that, unlike other clotting factors, activating fibrinogen does not convert it into an enzyme, but instead allows it to polymerize.) The fibrin strands glue the platelets together and make a web that forms the structural basis of the clot. Fibrin makes the liquid plasma become gel-like and traps formed elements that try to pass through it
True
47
route of blood flow through the heart
Superior vena cava, inferior vena cava, right atrium, tricuspid valve, right ventricle, pul semi valve, pulmonary trunk, pulmonary arteries, lungs
From lungs, pulmonary veins, left atrium, bicuspid valve, left ventricle, aortic semi lunar valve, aorta, body, back again,
48
what are the three layers of the heart
the epicardium, myocardium, and endocardium
49
Endocardium is the
inner layer of the heart – 1 layer of simple squamous epithelial cells
50
What is the middle layer of the heart?
Myocardium – majority of the heart – cardiac muscle cells
51
What is the outer layer of the heart?
Epicardium - the visceral layer
52
What are baroreceptors?
(pressure-sensitive mechanoreceptors that respond to changes in arterial pressure and stretch) and associated afferent fibers.
53
__________ reflexes are integrated in the cardiovascular center of the medulla, and their output travels via autonomic fibers to the heart and vascular smooth muscle.
baroreceptor
54
what part of the brains senses blood pressure changes
medulla oblongata
55
when there is low blood pressure sensed by the medulla what are the steps to fix it
baroreceptors in the carotid sinus and aortic arch are inhibited, impulses from baroreceptors activate the cardioacceloratory center, stimulate the vasomotor center, sympathetic impulses to the heart increase, increase in HR, contractability, CO and vosomotor fibers stimulate vasocontriction - all to increase blood pressure.
56
Low blood flow, low blood pressure coming into the aortic arch, you will have less stretch in the blood vessels, the receptors are neurons and sense less stretch they will have less action potentials that go to the cardio vascular center in the medulla. The CVC will sense the less stretch, less blood flow, blood pressure, then it will increase
SNS.
You will see increased, Heart Rate, cardiac output goes up and pressure goes up.
Increase in contractility, increase stroke volume which increases cardiac output and blood pressure.
57
Affect of SNS on vasculature
increase in vasoconstriction. This will increases total peripheral resistance and increase venous return. That startlings law. Increase in endiastolic volume, increase in stroke volume, cardiac output and increase in blood pressure.
58
The degree to which cardiac muscle cells are stretched just before they contract, called the preload, controls stroke volume. In a normal heart, the higher the preload, the higher the stroke volume. This relationship between preload and stroke volume is called
the Frank-Starling law of the heart.
59
Affect of SNS on vasculature
increase in vasoconstriction. This will increases total peripheral resistance and increase venous return. That startlings law. Increase in endiastolic volume, increase in stroke volume, cardiac output and increase in blood pressure.
60
The isovolumetric contraction phase is the
split-second period when the ventricles are completely closed chambers and the blood volume in the chambers remains constant as the ventricles contract. As ventricular pressure continues to rise, it finally exceeds the pressure in the large arteries issuing from the ventricles
61
The isovolumetric stage ends as the
SL valves are forced open.
62
The major force moving fluid out of the arterial end
blood hydrostatic pressure
63
During capillary bed exchange, Higher blood pressure will cause more fluid to come out. How much of that fluid get taken by the lymph and how much of the fluid comes back into the blood?
1/10, 9/10
64
during capillary bed fluid exchange what draw the fluid back in
blood colloidal osmotic pressure
65
what is edema?
Abnormal increase in the amount of interstitial fluid; causes swelling.
66
what causes edema?
Either an increase in outward pressure (driving fluid out of the capillaries) or a decrease in inward pressure could be the cause.
• An increase in capillary hydrostatic pressure
• Increased interstitial fluid osmotic pressure
• Decreased capillary colloid osmotic pressure
• decreased drainage of interstitial fluid through lymphatic vessels that have been blocked
67
what is doc's answer for what causes Edema
Blockage of the lymphatics. Having very high blood hydrostatic pressure or low blood colloidal osmotic pressure. Low plasma proteins. High blood pressure.
68
IVC vs. SVC
IVC drains the lower portion of the body. Superior vena cava drains the upper portion of the body. Lungs have their own drainage system
69
What is the role of increased sympathetic nervous system activity on heart rate, stroke volume and contractility?
If you increase SNS you increase HR, SV and contractility.
70
What is Cardiac output
Cardiac output (CO) is the amount of blood pumped out by each ventricle in 1 minute
71
the sounds lub-dup are associated with
the ventricles closing
72
lub sounds has to do with
the atrial ventricular valve closing. It signifies the point when ventricular pressure rises above atrial pressure (the beginning of ventricular systole).
73
What does the dup sounds have to do with?
The second sound occurs as the SL valves snap shut at the beginning of ventricular relaxation (diastole), resulting in a short, sharp sound
74
Increasing venous return will causes an increase in
EDV and CO and blood pressure. Exercise will do this or any sympathetic stimulation
75
PQRST wave
P – atrial depolarization
QRS – atrial repolarization and ventricular depolarization
T – ventricular repolarization
76
Blood flows from
high pressure to low pressure
77
Resistance impedes
flow
78
If you increase the viscosity of the blood, increase the length of blood vessel or if you decrease the radias all of these will
increase resistance and lower blood flow
79
If you increase hematocrit you
increase the viscosity or the thickness of the blood
80
Radius of blood vessels changes from
vasoconstriction or vasodialation.
81
Continuum of blood vessels thru limbs
In the arms – subclavian, axillary, brachial
| Legs – external iliac, femeral, popliteal
82
Lymph vessels are comparable to small veins. Thin walls and have valves.
True
83
How do valves open and close?
All valves open and close due to changes in pressure. In heart it’s changes in blood pressure that will influence the valves
84
Epinephrine increases contractility. When you stimulate the SNS your also stimulated the adrenal medulla which secretes
80% epi 20% nor epi. Adrenal medulla gives us the same effect as SNS
85
Sequence of hemostasis
Vascular spasm, platelet plug, coagulation
86
Starlings law of the heart
What goes in, goes out. If you increase EDV (amount of blood in the heart after filling) you will have a increase in contractility and stroke volume.
Contractility is the force of contraction
87
In terms of relative size and function, arteries can be divided into three groups, what are they in size order largest to smallest?
elastic arteries, muscular arteries, and arterioles.
88
Elastic arteries are the
thick-walled arteries near the heart—the aorta and its major branches (Figure 19.1). These arteries are the largest in diameter, ranging from 2.5 cm to 1 cm, and the most elastic
89
Elastic arteries contain
more elastin than any other vessel type. It is present in all three tunics, but the tunica media contains the most. There the elastin constructs concentric “holey” sheets of elastic connective tissue that look like slices of Swiss cheese sandwiched between layers of smooth muscle cells.
90
muscular arteries,
which deliver blood to specific body organs (and so are sometimes called distributing arteries). Muscular arteries account for most of the named arteries studied in the anatomy laboratory. Their internal diameter ranges from that of a little finger to that of a pencil lead.
91
The smallest of the arteries, ________ have a lumen diameter ranging from 0.3 mm down to 10 μm.
arterioles
92
What are the type of blood vessels leaving the heart?
elastic
93
What are the two largest veins
SVC and IVC
94
arteries and veins
elastic, muscular, arterioles, capillaries, venules, small veins, medium veins, large veins, SVC, IVC
95
Why lymph nodes swell ?
Increase proliferation of lymphocytes at the germinal centers. The lymph nodes starts making more cells to fight the infection, the infection itself is not swelling the lymph nodes.
96
Proliferation –
division of the lymphocytes
97
Germinal centers are the area in the
lymph nodes where there are lymphocytes and where the division occurs
98
Nonspecific defense mechanisms or immunity
Non-specific – things that try to keep the microorganisms off your body or from getting into your body. Non-specific has no memory.
Non – skin, mucous membrane, coughing, sneezing, nasal hairs, eyelashes, ear wax, urine – any barrier.
99
Specific defense mechanisms or immunity
has memory, each time you are exposed to you fight back stronger faster.
Two parts – humoral – b-cells and antibodies
Cell mediated – T cells
Both of these have memory they make memory cells.
100
Interferon
Proteins released from virus-infected (and other) cells that protect uninfected cells from viral takeover. Also inhibit some cancers.
101
interferon
Chemical involved in non-specific immunity. Secreted from a cell that is infected with a virus and the interferon protects the neighboring cell from the infection. The cell that is infected does die
102
Inflammatory response (study the charts)
Increase in vasodilation – more blood comes to the area which brings more cells to that area. Increase in vascular permeability so that you want the space between the simple squamous to be greater so the white blood cells can get across
103
Maturation of T vs. B cells
All of these cells come from the hemocytoblasts of the red bone marrow. The b cells come out of the bone marrow mature. The t cells have to go to the thymus gland to mature. Then they circulate in the lymph and travel all over the body tyring to come in contact with foreign cells.
104
When your B cells encounter antigens and produce antibodies against them, you are exhibiting
active humoral immunity.
105
T lymphocytes mature in the
Thymus
106
Which of the following is not an antigen-presenting cells (APC)?
dendritic cell
B cell
macrophage
T cell
T cell
107
Regulatory T cells ________.
may function in preventing autoimmune reactions
release cytokines that increase the activity of cytotoxic T cells and activated B cells
decrease their activity as antigenic stimulus decreases
aid B cells in antibody production
may function in preventing autoimmune reactions
108
Which cells phagocytize antigen-bearing cells and bind them to their MHCs?
antigen presenting cells
109
role of antigen presenting cell
to precent the processed antigen to the helper T cell.
110
T and B cells comes from red bone marrow, which ones comes out mature
B
111
Both b and t make
memory cells
112
helper T
receive the processed antigen and activate the cytotoxic T cells and B cells. They are a link between the two types of specific immunity.
113
Active immunity
you are making your own antibodies. The memory cells make this immunity life long.
Active Natural - exposure to the antigen
Active Artificial - vaccine
114
Active Natural Immunity
exposure to the antigen
115
Active Artificial immunity
vaccine
116
Active immunity is
lifelong because you make memory cells. Exposed naturally or vaccinated.
117
Passive immunity -
the antibodies are given to you from placent or breast milk or an injection where they harvest antibodies. But as soon as they are used up you have to make new. This is not lifelong
118
Opsonization
(“to make tasty”), which greatly accelerates phagocytosis of that pathogen.
119
complement system
provides a major mechanism for destroying foreign substances in the body. Its activation unleashes inflammatory chemicals that amplify virtually all aspects of the inflammatory process. Activated complement also lyses and kills certain bacteria and other cell types. (Luckily our own cells are equipped with proteins that normally inhibit complement activation.)
120
Complement is a series of
proteins that are inactive but once they are active they will coat or cover the outside of the antigen to up it’s chances of being phagocytised.
121
Route thru respiratory system
Trachea – brochi (primary, secondary, tertiary) terminal, respiratory bronchioles (no cartiledge), alveolar duct, alveolar sac, alveolus.
As you go down the respiratory tree there is less and less cartiledge and more smooth muscle.
122
Inspiration is an
active process because there are action potentials that travel down the phrenic nerve and innervate the diaphragm.
123
inspiration is an active process because
The diaphragm contracts and then flattens when it flattens that will increase the volume of the thoracic cavity lower the pressure and cause air to flow in.
124
Expiration is considered to be
passive because you stop action potentials going down the phrenic nerve so the diaphragm relaxes, when the diaphragm relaxes it will become dome shaped this will decrease the volume in the thoracic cavity, decrease the pressure and air flows out.
125
Phrenic nerve
phrenic nerve (fren′ik), which receives fibers from C3, C4, and C5. The phrenic nerve runs inferiorly through the thorax and supplies both motor and sensory fibers to the diaphragm (phren = diaphragm), which is the chief muscle causing breathing movements.
126
Two things that cause the lungs to collapse
high surface tension and the elastic recoil of the elastic fibers.
127
Two things that prevent the collapse of the lungs
surfactant and the negative intrapleural pressure
Surfactant lowers the surface tension 40x, negative intrapleural pressure like sucking the lungs against the body wall. You need both of them
128
Oxygen unloading is enhanced by (a) increased temperature, (b) increased PCO2, and/or hydrogen ion concentration (decreased pH), causing the dissociation curve to shift to the
right. This response is called the Bohr effect.
129
What causes the dissociation curve to shift to the right
increase body temp, increase co2, increase free hydrogen and a lower PH.
130
What causes the dissociation curve to shift to the left
lower body temp, low co2, less free hydrogen and a higher PH.
131
What influences the rhythmicity of breathing
Inspiratory center with influence from the higher brain centers in the pons. Apneustic center and pneumotactic center. The inspetory center is like the SA node is has spontaneous action potential. Expiratory center only plays a role in heavy labored breathing. When it is active it will inhibit the inspiratory center.
132
How CO2 is transported in blood
70% in the form of bicarbonate.
20% bound to plasma proteins
10% dissolved in the plasma
133
How O2 is transported in blood
98% bound to hemoglobin
2% dissolved in the plasma.
Gas exchange occurs in alveoli
134
Gas exchange occurs in
alveoli
135
Parietal cells secrete
hydrochloric acid
136
chief cells secrete
pepsinogen
137
Mucus neck cells secrete
mucus
138
Stomach has a large amount of mucous in the lining
True
139
Endocrine cells secrete hormones like
gastrin
140
Where bile enters gallbladder thru
Cystic duct
141
Mesentery helps to
anchor structures in place in the abdominal pelvic cavity, a route for blood vessels, nerves, lymphatics
142
specialized mesentery that comes off the lesser and greater curvatures of the stomach and they store fats.
greater and lesser omentum
143
What inhibits the Intestinal phase of gastric secretion
a PH less than 2
144
What turns on the Intestinal phase of gastric secretion
A PH greater than 2
145
CCK – helps to
digest and emulsify
146
CCK stimulates the gallbladder and that causes the gallbladder to secrete
concentrated bile which will help emulsify the fats. Also causes the pancreas to secrete digestive enzymes
147
Secretin – helps neutralize. causes the liver to secrete
dilute bile and that dilute bile will help to neutralize the situation. The pacrease secretes bicarbonate rich juice which will also help to neutralize.
148
Metabolism is the
sum of all of the chemical reactions in the body
149
Anabolic reactions are
synthesis reactions like making a hormone, a neural transmitter
Catabolic are breakdown reactions – decomposition.
150
Essential nutrients
If something is essential you must have it in your diet because your body doesn't make it or it doesn’t make enough of it. Certain amino acids, fatty acids, water, vitamins, minerals
151
Saturated vs. unsaturated fatty acids
Saturated only have single bonds between carbons
| Unsaturated have at least one double bond.
152
Characteristics of cholesterol
Cholesterol Precursor to all steroids. We need cholesterol in the cell membrane for fluidity. It’s made in the liver. If you don’t ingest it, your liver will make it. It’s lipid soluble.
153
Role of NADH
Electron carriers. They carry the electron to the electron transport chain for ATP synthesis. They are like taxi cabs.
154
Lactic acid vs. pyruvic acid
both are the End products of glycolosis. When oxygen is available we get pyruvic acid, when O2 is not present we get lactic acid. When oxygen is present we get lots of ATP
155
Fat soluble vitamins
Absorbed along with fats, they go through the lacteals and then the lymph where they eventually get into the blood stream. Since fat soluble vitamins can be absorbed with fats, they can also be stored with fats. You can overdose on these. You cannot overdose on water soluble vitamin, B and C
156
Fatty acids catabolism
Beta oxidation – 2 carbons at a time are removed from the fatty acids. Those two carbons are converted to acetyle CoA which enters the kreb cycle. If break down too much fat you gets lots of aectyle coa you get ketons in your urine. This whole thing is reversible.
157
characteristics of Juxamedulllary nephrons:
Have long loops of Henley.
158
the longer loops of henly in Juxamedullary helps to
concentrate the urine
159
most nephrons are coricol which are
shorter than juxtamedullary
160
Factors influencing movement across glomerulus
The afferent arteriol has a bigger lumen than the efferent arteriole. Blood goes in easily but has a harder time coming out.
161
Blood hydrostatic pressure or glomerular hydrostatic pressure moves blood ______ the glomerulus
into
162
what keep the blood in
blood colloidal osmotic pressure due to plasma protein. There is a hydrostatic pressure in the bowmans capsule space
163
in net filtration pressure there are two forces keeping the fluid in the space of the glomerular capsule
hydrostatic pressure in the space and blood colloidal osmotic
164
in net filtration pressure there is one force pushing out which is the
the blood hydrostatic pressure which should always be higher than the two keeping fluid in.
165
There are three major pressures that play a role in determining filtration. What are they?
: Glomerular hydrostatic blood pressure, Blood colloidal osmotic pressure and Capsular hydrostatic pressure
166
When there is an increase in ADH and/or Aldosterone you’ll have ________ urine
less
167
If you have high osmolality in the extracellular space and the hypothalamus senses this is will cause the posterior pituitary to increase __________
ADH secretion.
ADH travels through the blood goes to the kidneys and increases the number of open water channels so you reabsorb more water and make small volumes of concentrated urine.
168
Aldosterone will be secreted when you have
low extracellular sodium and high extracelluluar potassium.
169
when there is low extracellular sodium and high extracelluluar potassium, Aldosterone will travel through the blood, get to the kidneys and increase the number of sodium and chloride transport proteins. Sodium and chloride absorbtion increases and water follows. Increases potassaium secretion in the urine.
True
170
If you have an increase in renin you’ll have
less urine
171
Renin will be increased when
Low blood flow at the kidneys is sensed by the special cells at the juxtaglomerular apparatus.
172
process of renin to angio tensin 2 to aldosterone
Renin will cut angiotensinogen to angio tensin 1 – both inactive. Angiotensin 1 goes to the lungs where there is ACE that breaks angioangio tensin 1 to angiotensin 2 it is a potent vasoconstrictor and it will increase blood pressure. It will also stimulate aldosterone secretion.
173
ADH and aldosterone and angio tensin 2 will
will increase blood volume, blood pressure and cause you to make small volumes of concentrated urine.
174
The internal urethral sphincters are _____________ and the outer are ___________. This is from the , highest brain center.
smooth muscle and involuntarily controlled , skeletal and voluntarily, cerebrum
175
Characteristics of substances used to calculate plasma clearance
To measure plasma clearance you use inulin.
1. Completely filtered at the glumurulus.
2. 0% reabsorbed back into the blood
3. 100% flted – 0% secreted in the urine
176
When you exceed the transport maximum, the excess remains in the ___________________
filtrated and then goes into the urine.
177
Differences between intra & extra cellular fluid
There’s more intracellular fluid. Intra has more potassium. Extracellular has more sodium. Water always goes across the cell.
178
K+ levels are regulated by _____________
aldosterone
179
Definition of pH
Measure the free hydrogen ion concentration. 0-14. As you increase the concentration of free hydrogen we see the ph go down. 7 is neutral. PH less than 7 is acidic, greater than 7 is basic.
180
Acid will increase the concentration of free hydrogen in a solution
Base will decrease the concentration of free hydrogen.
True
181
Buffers maintain the
PH
182
Sensible vs. insensible perspiration
Sensible - Sweat – water loss through the lungs and skin but we can’t sense that which makes it insensible.
183
How respiratory rate changes to fix pH
If you are acidic it means you have a low PH and lots of extra hydrogen and there will be an increase in respiratory rate. if respiratory rate goes up, you’ll have less c02, less free hydrogen and your PH will go up.
If your basic you have a higher PH, you’ll see a decrease in respiratory rate, we will retain c02, more co2, more free hydrogen and PH goes down.
Resp goes up, ph goes up, resp rate goes down PH goes down.
Fixes PH pretty quickly.
184
High c02, high free hydrogen,______ PH
| Low co2, low free hydrogen, _____ PH
low, high
185
Location of kidneys
retroperitineal
186
what are the 2 basic categories of hormones?
water soluble (hydrophilic) and lipid soluble (hydrophobic)
187
water soluble hormones tend to be
amino acid based water soluble proteins
188
lipid soluble hormones are usually
steroids and derived from cholesterol
189
things that move readily across the cell membrane are
lipid soluble
190
the things that do not move easily over the cell membrane
water soluble molecules
191
for water soluble cells the receptors are on the _____ of the cell
outside
192
water soluble hormones start a cascade effect once they bind to their receptors this is called
second messenger system or cyclic AMP - two atp
193
The hormone is called the first messenger and its binding to a receptor causes the activation of a
G protein
194
the second messenger, then floats in the cell and activates another enzyme,
protein kinase
195
The second messenger system is an example of a
cascade effect
196
what is the most common 2nd messenger in the body?
cAMP
197
Up vs. down regulation
In up you have a low number of hormones so you up your receptors for that hormone
In down you have lots of hormone so you decrease your receptors for that hormone.
198
Second messenger system is
FAST
199
Relationship between hypothalamus & anterior pituitary
Hypo and anterior pituitary is a Portal system
200
Relationship between hypothalamus & posterior pituitary
Hypo and posterior pituitary is a nerve tract
201
What Two hormones are secreted from Posterior pituitary
ADH and oxytocin. They are made in the hypothalamus
202
Oxytocin –
| Causes
uterine smooth muscle contraction and smooth muscles in the aeriolar to help milk out but it doesn’t produce milk,
203
What causes milk production
prolactin
204
what does calcitonin do
it regulates blood calcium levels and is antagonistic with the action of Parathyroid hormone.
205
parythyroid glands secrete parathyroid hormone secretes in response to
low calcium levels.
206
What does parathyroid hormone do?
increase osteoclast activity, increases calcium reabsorption by the kidnesy and increases vitamin D. We also release phosphate which will be excreted in the urine.
207
phosphate gets excreted in the
urine
208
PTH will increase the absorption of calcium in the small intestine, increase the reabsorption of calcium by the kidneys
True
209
What kind of hormone is a glucose sparing hormone needed for increase growth of bone and muscle. Use amino acids.
Growth Hormone (GH)
210
Neurohormone secretions are
from adrenal medulla
211
Adrenal medulla
80% epi, 20% norepi
212
Neurohormones are named because they come from neurons but they travel in the blood so they are neuro-hormone.
True
213
Glucocorticoids have three major effects
metabolic, developmental, anti-inflammatory
214
cortisol is a
Glucocorticoid
215
Glucocorticoids decrease of the secretions of the
white blood cells.
216
Insulin is secreted from
beta cells in the pancreas
217
glucogon is secreted from
alpha cells
218
insulin is a
protein hormone that is secreted when you have elevated blood glucose levels
219
insulin will
lower blood glucose levels
220
Glucagon is secreted when
you have low blood glucose levels then there will be an increase in glucagon and there will be and increase in glucose.
221
Testis are covered by white capsule called the
tunica vaginalis and tunica albuginia
222
Where are sperm produced
Seminiferous tubules
223
testosterone is secreted from the
interstitial cells of leydig
224
sperm matures and stored in the
epidymis.
225
Order sperm travel thru male reproductive tract
Seminiferous, rete testes, efferent ductules, epidydimis, vas deferens, ejaculatory duct
226
Order sperm travel thru female reproductive tract
Vagina, cerix, uterus, fallopean tubes,
227
Role of ligaments in female reproductive tract
Hold things in place
228
How many eggs are ever ovulated
400
229
Where most of semen is produced
Seminal vesicles make 60%
230
Where does implantation occur
Uterus, endometrium.
231
Ovulation
The release of the oocyte of the egg at about day 14.
232
Corpus luteum
The follicle that are around the egg, after the egg are released the cells are the corpus luteum, if you are pregnant it’s the corpus luteum of pregnancy until the placenta takes over and becomes the gland of pregnancy. If your not pregnant or after the pregnancy it starts to disintegrate and become the albigans.
233
Menstrual cycle, length and which day ovulation is on
28, 14
234
function of the vagina
to receive penis and out for baby
235
Hormone changes during menstrual cycle
LH – spikes right before ovulation. During the whole follicular stage estrogen is rising. Second stage the luteal stage there is an increase in progesterone. When both P and E decrease you begin menstration.
236
menopause
less menstruation, hormone levels go down.
237
For each turn of the krebs cycle, we get:
Two CO2 molecules that come from two decarboxylations.
Four molecules of reduced coenzymes (3 NADH + 3 H+ and 1 FADH2). The addition of water at certain steps accounts for some of the released hydrogen.
One molecule of ATP (via substrate-level phosphorylation).
238
Of the various lipids, only ____________ are routinely oxidized for energy
triglycerides
239
triglyceride catabolism involves the separate oxidation of their two different building blocks: glycerol and fatty acid chains
True
