Final Exam Flashcards
what is energy?
the capacity of a physical system to do work
what is work?
the ability to bring about change in a system
what does the 2nd law of thermodynamics state?
the natural tendency of the universe is to become less organized; energy must be invested to counter this
what is the universal energy carrier and what are the others/ how do they store energy?
ATP; P-P bonds
NADH/FADH/NADPH; e- bonds
how is ATP generated with O2?
cellular respiration
how is ATP generated without O2?
fermentation by breaking down pyruvate
two kinds of Fermentation and who uses it?
lactic acid fermentation; human body
alcoholic fermentation; yeast
what does alcoholic fermentation produce?
ATP
Ethanol
CO2
what does lactic acid fermentation produce?
ATP
Lactic Acid
what do yeast use for alcoholic fermentation?
glucose or fructose
aerobic cellular respiration equation?
6O2+C6H12O2–> 6O2+6H2O+38 ATP
where does aerobic cellular respiration take place and what are the stages?
mitochondrion;
glycolysis,
Krebs cycle,
oxidative phosphorylation
where does Glycolysis occur and what does it breakdown and produce?
cytosol;
breaking glucose into 2 pyruvate molecules,
generates a small amount of ATP
where does the Krebs Cycle occur and what does it breakdown and produce?
mitochondrial matrix;
breaks down 2 pyruvate to make CO2, ATP, NADH and FADH
where does Oxidative Phosphorylation occur and what does it breakdown and produce?
cristae;
energy from the e- in FADH and NADH is used to power a H+ pump that sets up a H+ gradient; when H+ flow down their gradient through ATPase, ATP is produced; O2 is consumed during this step and so it is considered aerobic
what are the main products of Photosynthesis and where does it occur?
glucose and O2;
chloroplast
Photosynthesis equation?
6CO2+6H2O+sunlight–> C6H12O6+6O2
what are the 2 stages of Photosynthesis?
light reactions,
Calvin cycle
where do the light reactions occur and what happens?
thylakoid membrane;
chlorophyll absorbs light energy, splitting H2O; this forms H+, O2 and electrons that get energized by the sunlight and go down the electron transport chain (ETC) to power H+ that set up a H+ gradient; NADPH and ATP are produced
where does the calvin cycle occur and what happens?
stroma;
uses the ATP and NADPH generated by the light reactions to fix inorganic carbon (CO2) into organic carbon (C6H12O6—glucose) by producing G3P
what kind of asexual reproduction do bacteria use and what happens?
binary fission;
cell copies DNA and splits in half
what are the three phases of the cell cycle?
interphase,
mitosis,
cytokinesis
what happens in interphase?
the cell grows and the DNA is copied in S phase
what happens in mitosis?
nuclear division
what happens in cytokinesis?
splitting of the cytoplasm resulting in 2 daughter cells
what are the four stages of mitosis?
Prophase,
Metaphase,
Anaphase,
Telophase
what happens in Prophase?
chromatin condenses, nuclear envelope breaks down, centrosomes migrate to opposite poles and form the spindle apparatus
what happens in Metaphase?
condensed, replicated chromosomes line up along the metaphase plate
what happens in Anaphase?
sister chromatids (genetically identical) are separated as the spindle fibers shorten
what happens in Telophase?
2 new nuclear envelopes form, the chromosomes decondense and the spindle apparatus breaks down
How does a benign tumor becomes malignant?
loss of cell adhesion, angiogenesis and loss of anchorage dependence
what is Meiosis?
nuclear division producing gametes
what are the three stages of Meiosis 1 and what happens?
Anaphase
(separates homologous chromosomes)
Prophase
(homologous chromosomes pair up to form tetrads and cross-over, swapping alleles to generate new allele combinations)
Metaphase
(the tetrads line up randomly along the metaphase plate; this is called independent assortment)
what happens in Meiosis 2?
the haploid cells formed in meiosis I are divided again; in this division the recombinant sister chromatids are separated; the result is a total of 4 genetically diverse haploid cells (gametes)
how many chromosomes are in somatic and gametic human cells?
46(diploid)
23 (haploid)
what is a chromosome?
a strand of DNA wrapped in histone proteins
who studies complete dominance pea plants?
Mendel
genotype has 2 of the same allele?
homozygous
genotype has 2 different alleles?
heterozygous
traits controlled by many genes?
polygenic
traits controlled by one gene?
monogenic
variation in inheritance that is blended?
incomplete dominance
variation in inheritance that has 2 distinctive phenotypes?
co-dominance
variation in inheritance that is pressured by environment?
environmental effects
when does mother-fetus Rh incompatibility occur?
mother is dd and the fetus is Dd
how to find the chance of different events happening together?
multiply separate probabilities against each other
monohybrid cross phenotypic ratio?
3:1 dominate to recessive
dihybrid cross phenotypic ratio?
9:3:3:1
dihybrid cross led to?
law of independent assortment
monohybrid cross led to?
the law of segregation
what is genetic linkage?
genes are located close together on a chromosome and do not get separated from one another
what causes genetic diseases?
duplication,
deletion,
translocation,
inversion
what are X-linked diseases/ who is more susceptible?
caused by genes located on the X chromosome;
males
what are the purine bases?
A &G (single ring)
what are the pyrimidine bases?
T & C (double ring)
what are DNA base pairs?
C-G
A-T
what are the RNA base pairs
C-G
A-U
what enzymes are used in DNA replication?
helicase
DNA Polymerase
Central Dogma of Gene Expression?
Gene –> (transcripted) mRNA –>(translation) protein
how does RNA Pol. work?
transcribe the gene’s DNA template strand in order to make an RNA copy of the DNA coding strand
what happens before mRNA can leave the nucleus for translation?
it is edited via RNA splicing, cutting out the introns and leaving the exons
What scans what for the Start Codon and what is it?
The ribosome scans mRNA for the Start Codon AUG which established the correct reading frame
what two things are the genetic code?
universal
unambiguous
how many codons are in the genetic code vs. proteins? What does this mean?
64:20
Redundant
what are the Stop Codons?
UAG
UAA
UGA
what is it called when a one DNA base is substituted for another, and what can happen?
called Substitutions, it can result in Silent, Missense (changes amino acid), or nonsense (changes amino acid to stop codon) mutations
what is it called when the Reading Frame is shifted and what causes this?
called Frameshift, it is caused by insertions or deletions
small circular piece of DNA?
Plasmid
what is Recombinant DNA?
combining DNA from multiple species
what is Bacterial Transformation?
when bacteria take up DNA, such as plasmids, from their surroundings
what is pGLO and what 3 genes does it contain and what do they do?
pGLO is a plasmid containing:
GFP (glow)
araC (turns off GFP w/ o Arabinose)
Amp^r (ampicillin resistant)
what 4 mechanisms lead to change in Gene Pool?
gene flow
genetic drift
mutation
natural selection
what are the 3 types of Natural Selection?
directional
stabilizing
disruptive
analogous structures arise as the result of ___ due to similar selective pressures
Convergent Evolution
fossil record, transitional fossils, comparative embryonic development, homologous structures, analogous structures, vestigial structures, artificial selection.
Are ALL examples of what?
Evidence for evolution
arise as the result of shared common ancestors with variable selective pressures
homologous structures
structures that have lost their original function once used in ancestral species
vestigial structures
STUDY HARDY-WEINBERG
STUDY HARDY-WEINBERG
a group of organisms that can interbreed to produce fertile offspring
Species
three kinds of evolution?
divergent
convergent
coevolution
what isolates one species from the next and what 2 kinds are there?
Reproductive barriers;
prezygotic or post-zygotic
when did primates evolve?
35 mya
difference between hominids and hominins?
hominids = Great Apes hominids = Humans
why did life most likely begin in the ocean?
hot atmosphere
harsh UV rays
hydrothermal vents made primordial soup
what did the Miller-Urey experiment show?
hydrothermal vents could make organic molecules
when did Earth form?
4.6 bya
when was the first life/ who was it?
3.8 bya;
Archaeans
when were the first eukaryotes?
2.2 bya
when was the first multicellular life?
2.1 bya
who is responsible for greater oxygen levels/ how?
cyanobacteria;
photosynthesis
are viruses living?
no
what kind of immunity do vaccines give?
acquired immunity through antibodies
why does HIV have no vaccine?
mutates rapidly
kills helper T cells
how does HIV infect helper T cells?
uses Reverse Transcriptase and integrase to make DNA by splicing in its viral RNA
kingdom of misfits classified by what they are not?
Kingdom Protista
kingdom of absorptive heterotrophs?
Kingdom Fungi
kingdom including angiosperms?
kingdom Plantae
what evolutionary evolutions allowed plants to move on to land?
vascular system
cuticle
what does xylem do?
transports water/ minerals from roots to shoots
what does phloem do?
transports sugar from leaves to the rest of the plant
plants lacking vascular system?
bryophytes
first vascular plants?
pteridophytes
first plant to have pollen and seeds?
gymnosperms
first plants to have flowers and fruit?
angiosperms
what is a seed/ ploidy?
double-fertilized ovule;
embryo (2n) and endosperm (3n)
what is the protein of life?
collagen
what are animals?
multicellular
ingestive heterotrophs
sexual reproduction
development to first animal?
choanoflagellates –> choanocytes –> sponge
