Exam1 Flashcards
Body’s maintenance of near-constant internal conditions for healthy cells.
Homeostasis
Sensors detect changes and act to correct them, e.g., thermostats.
Negative Feedback Systems
Sensors amplify changes, e.g., oxytocin release during labor.
Positive Feedback Systems
5 Main Cellular Organelles
Mitochondria, Lysosomes, Peroxisomes, Endoplasmic Reticulum, Golgi Apparatus
Responsible for cellular energy production (80% of this is received from the mother)
Mitochondria
A process that involves DNA transcription, RNA production, and ribosome translation is known as?
Protein Synthesis
Involved in protein and lipid production within cells.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (Rough ER forms proteins, Smooth ER builds lipids)
Portion of Endoplasmic Reticulum responsible for protein formation.
Rough ER (RER or Granular ER)
Portion of Endoplasmic Reticulum responsible for lipid formation.
Smooth ER
Modifies and processes proteins for cellular use (post-translation)
Golgi Apparatus
Provide internal support and shape to cells.
Structural Proteins
Used for energy, structural functions, and cellular identification.
Sugars in Cells
Break down and recycle cellular components using acidic processes.
Lysosomes
Use oxidative reactions to degrade toxins in cells.
Peroxisomes
Catalyze chemical reactions, with names ending in ‘ase’.
Enzymes
Homeostatic process controlled by kidneys and majority of extracellular fluid buffering.
Blood Pressure Regulation
Cellular structures involved in protein translation.
Ribosomes
Cellular structures that package and transport proteins.
Vesicles
Can lead to vicious cycles if not controlled, causing health issues.
Positive Feedback Risks
Sugars that act as ID tags by attaching to extracellular proteins is known as what process?
Cellular Identification
Explain the process of cellular support
Sugars and structural proteins provide support and function in cells.
What is homeostasis impairment? What major intervention can impair these processes?
Homeostasis is the state of balance in the body’s systems that allows it to function and survive. Homeostatic imbalance, or homeostatic failure, occurs when the body can’t maintain a stable internal environment. Anesthesia impairs control systems, requiring manual management.
Cells need energy compounds and chemicals to buffer pH for stability. This helps the cell maintain what?
Healthy Cellular Environment
Cells can specialize and provide structures for various processes.
Cellular Functions
Fluid surrounding cells, maintained by electrolytes and energy compounds
Extracellular fluid (ECF)
Fluid inside cells, maintaining internal environment balance
Intracellular fluid (ICF)
Weight of a standard healthy adult patient
70kg
Total body water (TBW) approximation
60% of body mass in kg
How many kg is 1 liter (L)
1L = 1kg
2/3 of total body water (TBW) comprises what space?
intracellular fluid (ICF)
Total body water (TBW) in all of the cells inside the body
Intracellular fluid
1/3 total body water (TBW)
extracellular fluid (ECF)
Total body water (TBW) in the body’s non-cellular compartments
extracellular fluid (ECF)
makes up 1/4 to 1/5 of extracellular fluid
plasma (2.8 to 3.5L or approx. 3L in a healthy 70kg adult)
Remaining, non-plasma fluid, in the extracellular fluid
Interstitial fluid
makes up 3/4 to 4/5 of extracellular fluid (ECF)
Interstitial fluid (10.5 to 11.2L or approx. 11L in a healthy 70kg adult)
Where is the remaining 40% of total body water (TBW) in a healthy 70kg adult located?
blood (approx. 5L) and rest of body mass (approx. 23L)
Control system detecting changes and counteracting them to maintain stability
Negative feedback
Class examples given for negative feedback
Body’s response to decreased MAP resulting in release of AVP/ADH, decreasing ANP, parasympathetic outflow and increasing sympathetic outflow. Also, increasing CO2 will increase respiratory drive to systematically decrease CO2
Class example given related to the body’s sensors and controllers
Thermostat
Nervous system response increasing norepinephrine release to regulate blood pressure
Sympathetic outflow
Nervous system response reducing activity to help stabilize blood pressure
Parasympathetic outflow
Hormone that increases in response to low blood pressure by binding to V2 receptors on the cell surface of tubular cells, initiating an intracellular cascade which results in antidiuretic action on the collecting ducts of the kidney.
Vasopressin (VP, ADH, AVP)
28-amino acid peptide that helps regulate blood pressure and blood volume by increasing the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) in the kidneys, dilating blood vessels, and promoting the excretion of sodium and water through urine, which decreases blood volume and regulates blood pressure. It also suppresses the autonomic pressure response and inhibits the secretion of renin and aldosterone.
Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP)
System that amplifies a change, like oxytocin during labor
Positive Feedback
Class examples given for positive feedback
uterine contraction/fetal head/oxytocin loop and thromboxane A2 (TXA2) mediated blood clotting through platelet aggregation and vasospasm/vasoconstriction
Hormone released during labor to increase uterine contractions
Oxytocin
Out-of-control positive feedback causing catastrophic outcomes
Vicious Cycle
Widespread infection leading to cell death and toxic byproducts release
Sepsis
Substances released from dying cells that can negatively affect neighboring cells
Metabolic Byproducts
Class examples given of metabolic byproducts
Lecture states CO2, water, as waste products but other byproducts can include phosphates and sulphates
In severe acidosis, this normal body regulatory process can be a pathologic cycle, exacerbating the condition
pathological positive feedback ( in severe acidosis, the central nervous system can be affected to the point that respiratory drive is reduced. This reduced respiratory drive then perpetuates the acidosis, creating a positive feedback loop that spirals out of control. This type of positive feedback system is also termed a “vicious cycle”
Healthy individuals can usually manage this much blood volume reduction.
20% or 1L in a healthy 70kg adult
Amount of blood loss that significantly impairs the body’s ability to compensate, leading to critical condition.
40% or 2L in a healthy 70kg adult
Pathologic cycle where positive feedback mechanisms outweigh normal negative feedback systems.
Vicious Positive Feedback Loop
Body’s ability to manage internal changes for health vs. dysfunction causing abnormal responses.
Physiology vs. Pathology
Human body consists of approximately 35 trillion of these
Cells
Cells performing specific tasks based on location and role within the body.
Specialized Cells
A group of like-minded cells organized to perform a specific function.
Tissue
Comprised of various tissues responsible for maintaining the body’s internal environment.
Organ
Cells lacking a nucleus, unable to replicate, replaced by progenitor stem cells.
Red Blood Cells
Cells in the central nervous system with slow to no replication rates.
Neurons
Cells replicating slowly over a lifetime to replace dead cells.
Cardiac Cells
Consists of phospholipids forming a barrier for the cell.
Cell wall
Structure of the cell wall with hydrophilic phosphate heads and hydrophobic lipid tails.
Phospholipid Bilayer
Fluid part of the cell where chemical reactions occur to sustain life.
Cytoplasm
Internal compartment storing DNA and controlling genetic information.
Nucleus
Double phospholipid bilayer separating the nucleus from the cytoplasm.
Nuclear Wall
Vesicles releasing active proteins or peptides outside the cell for specialized functions.
Secretory Vesicles
What are the 3 main functions of phosphate
Phosphate acts as an intracellular buffer, Phosphate is used to regulate protein activity, Phosphate is used as an energy storage system
Where is calcium stored within the cell?
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Typical healthy cell composition
Cells are typically 70-75% water, with fat cells having less due to high fat content.
Lipid Importance
Lipids like cholesterol play vital roles in signaling, cell wall structure, and metabolism for the body.
Cellular Motility
Flagella move the cell through its environment and cilia move the environment around the cell
Cell walls and capillary membranes regulate compound movement, impacting cellular functions and drug delivery.
Cellular Barriers
Utilized for ATP production, cell attachment, and self-identification
sugars
Anaerobic metabolism in cytosol converting glucose to 2 ATP (vs 32 in aerobic) and pyruvate which converts to lactate
glycolysis
Anaerobic metabolism in cytosol converting glucose to ATP
Glycoproteins
Hemoglobin with sugars affecting protein functionality
Carboxyhemoglobin
Fats like cholesterol for signaling compounds
lipids
Long-chain fatty acid crucial for cell wall integrity
Arachidonic Acid
Ions, some proteins, electrolytes, carbs, glucose, and gases (are these soluble or insoluble?)
Soluble
Compounds that do not dissolve in water, like nitrous oxide
Insoluble compounds
Maintain pH balance in body compartments
Buffers
Aids drug solubility for cardiovascular system delivery
Carrier Protein/Lipid
Maintained differences in fluid compositions, crucial for cell function
Steady State
Normal Body Weight
Typically 70 kg, where 60% of the weight should be water
Proteins maintained within the cardiovascular system to fulfill specific functions
Plasma Proteins
What should the concentration of extracellular sodium be? Intracellular sodium?
Predominant positively charged electrolyte in ECF, with a normal concentration of 140-142 mOsm/L. ICF sodium concentration should be about 1/10 of ECF or 14
What should the concentration of extracellular potassium be? Intracellular potassium?
ECF should be 4 mOsm/L and ICF should be a 30:1 ratio or approximately 130-140 (120 per the ECF)
What should the concentration of extracellular calcium be? Intracellular calcium?
ECF should be 1 mOsm/L and ICF should be a 10,000:1 ratio or effectively 0
Element that is essential for intracellular chemical reactions, with a higher concentration inside cells
Magnesium
Primary anion of ECF, follows the distribution of sodium
Chloride
