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Neuroscience > Evolution > Flashcards

Evolution Flashcards

1
Q

Parapatric speciation

A

Occurs when a smaller population is isolated

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2
Q

Sympatric Speciation

A

When a species evolves from a single ancestry whilst inhabiting the same geographical region

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3
Q

Allopatric speciation

A

when a biological population becomes separated and isolated from each other, causing them to evolve separately into different species

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4
Q

Molecular clock hypothesis

A

DNA and protein sequences evolve at a rate that is relatively constant over time + among different organisms

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5
Q

Genetic drift

A

random changes in allele frequencies caused by sampling error

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6
Q

Convergent evolution

A

Distantly related species show similar adaptations due to similar selection pressures

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7
Q

Succulent

A

fleshy stems store water, small leaves reduce water loss, spines deter herbivores

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8
Q

Cacti vs euphorbs

A

Convergent adaptations to life in arid conditions - separated due human intervention

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9
Q

THe molcular clock

A

Pairs of species compared for same protein - coding differences highly correlated with divergence derived from fossil data. Genetic differences appear at constant rate

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10
Q

neutral theory

A

genetic changes arent due to natural selection, but evolve randomly, are neutral

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11
Q

synonymous mutation

A

change in codon doesnt result in chnage to resulting amino acid

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12
Q

Microevolution

A

Changes in gene pool of an organism over time

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13
Q

Gene pool

A

all alleles of all genes of all individuals in a population, representing total genetic variation

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14
Q

Macroevolution

A

large-scale evolution that occurs at the level of species and above

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15
Q

What is required for life?

A

Cool temperatures
Gravity
Water

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16
Q

How do cool temperatures promote life?

A

Allows molecules to keep shape

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17
Q

How does water promote life?

A
  • Solvent for molecules to interact

- Protection from radiation

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18
Q

Protosomes

A

Organisms whose mouth forms first

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19
Q

Deuterosomes

A

Organisms whose mouth forms second

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20
Q

protozoan

A

first or primitive life

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21
Q

Metazoan

A

multicellular animals

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22
Q

Diploblastic

A

containing two tissue layers

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23
Q

Triploblastic

A

containing three tissue layers

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24
Q

Ectoderm

A

tissue (germ layer) in the outside - gives rise to skin and nervous system

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25
Q

Mesoderm

A

middle germ layer - gives rise to notochord, muscle, kidney, blood

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26
Q

endoderm

A

inside germ layer - gives rise to internal organs

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27
Q

Chordate

A

Animals with notochords

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28
Q

Notochord

A

‘chord in back’ first tissue to differentiate in chordates

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29
Q

Urochordate

A

animals with notochords in their tails

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30
Q

cephalochordate

A

animals with notochords extending into their heads

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31
Q

Echinoderm

A

prickly skin- groups of animals which include sea urchins

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32
Q

Descriptive biology

A

experiments aiming to define normal embryonic development, w/ minimal disruption of the process. Lead to understanding what happens during development, but not how, no mechanistic insight into how cells achieve their normal fate

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33
Q

Experimental biology

A

Experiments which aim to define how embryonic development occurs.

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34
Q

Morphogenesis

A

Process by which form is generated. Involves coordinated cell movements

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35
Q

Gastrulation

A

Morphogenetic process by which endoderm, mesoderm and ectoderm layers reach final positions in embryos

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36
Q

Neurulation

A

Morphogenetic process by which NS begins to forms, especially formation of the neural tube

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37
Q

Blastomere

A

cell in early embryo

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38
Q

Fate map

A

Assessment of fate of cell or group of cells based on lineage labelling. Part of descriptive embryology, doesnt require disturbing development.

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39
Q

specification map

A

Assessment of what a cell or groups of cells will form if removed from embryonic environment. Experimental embryology

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40
Q

Determined

A

Cell/tissue is determined if it will still develop according to its fate. even when transplanted elsewhere in embryo.

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41
Q

Organizer

A

Dorsal mesoderm at gastrula stage, which induces overlying ectoderm to become neural and induces neighbouring mesoderm to become somitic

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42
Q

Nieuwkoop centre

A

region of early dorsal vegetal pole in blastula stage whihc induces the organiser

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43
Q

Arabidopsis

A

Thale cress

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44
Q

Dictyostelium

A

Slime mould

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45
Q

Hydra

A

Cnidarian

46
Q

Planarians

A

Flatworms

47
Q

Caenorhabditis

A

Nematode worm

48
Q

Drosophila

A

Fruit fly

49
Q

Parhyale

A

Amphipod crustacean

50
Q

Strongylocentrotus

A

Sea urchin

51
Q

Ciona

A

tunicate or sea squirt

52
Q

Brachiostoma

A

amphioxus

53
Q

Danio

A

zebrafish

54
Q

Xenopus

A

clawed frog

55
Q

gallus

A

chick

56
Q

Mus

A

mouse

57
Q

Advantages of parhyale hawaiensis

A
  • short generation time
  • genetics
  • sequenced genome
  • high regenerative capacity
  • transgenesis
  • transparent - imaging
58
Q

-zoa

A

life

59
Q

blast-

A

bud (embryonic)

60
Q

meta-

A

after

61
Q

noto-

A

back

62
Q

-uro

A

tail

63
Q

cephalo

A

head

64
Q

echino

A

spiny/ prickly

65
Q

Transplantation experiments aim

A

assess cells and tissues and whether they can alter the fate of their neighbors.
Experimental embryology

66
Q

Enforced expression or mutation of genes

A

Wrong place/time/level.
FInd out what happens.
Experimental embryology

67
Q

Mosaic development

A

Stage where cell fates are determined, able to become anything

68
Q

Regenerative development

A

stage where cell fates have been determined, but are reliant on neighbouring cells for signal

69
Q

Competence

A

Rage of cell fates available to cells/tissues , can be achieved depending on conditions.

70
Q

Example of cells which are competent to give rise to cell types it would not normally be specified or fated to form

A

Xenopus
Animal cap cells from blastula stage frog embryos - already fated to give rise to ectodermal tissue, are competent to form any cell in the embryo given the right signals

71
Q

Induction

A

Process by which a cell or tissue emits signals changing the fate of their neighbouring cells

72
Q

Example of induction in development

A

Induction of neural ectoderm by dorsal mesoderm at the gastrula stage (organiser experiment)

73
Q

Organiser experiment

A

Induction of neural ectoderm by dorsal mesoderm at gastrula stage

74
Q

Homeotic mutation

A

Mutation leading to transformation of one body structure into another, forms correctly but in wrong place

75
Q

Hox gene

A

family of clustered genes in genome which encode related transcription factors characterised by homeodomain

76
Q

Homeodomain

A

DNA binding domain

77
Q

Evidence that hox genes give positional identity along anterior - posterior axis

A

1) expression pattern
2) Comparative embryology
3) Gene knockout experiments

78
Q

How do gene knockout experiments give evidence that hox genes give positional identity along A-P axis

A

remove function of genes lose expression patterning. shows cells are involved in assigning AP patterning

79
Q

Tandem gene duplication

A

Unequal cross over due to chromosome mis pairing at meiosis - possibly caused by repeated DNA sequences
Can be segmental or whole duplications

80
Q

Segmental duplication

A

Giant tandem duplication, affecting whole chunk of chromosome

81
Q

Whole duplication events of genome

A

Can occur by:
Allotetraploidy-hybridization
Autotetraploidy

82
Q

Allotetraploidy

A

Hybridization between 2 separate species, formed by meiosis

83
Q

Autotetraploidy

A

duplication of genome through improper meiosis

84
Q

Homologous genes

A

2 genes you can see share a common answer: extends to paralogous and orthologous genes

85
Q

Paralogous genes

A

2 genes sharing a common ancestor within a single genome/organism

86
Q

Example of paralogous genes

A

Fetal haemoglobin + adult haemoglobin

87
Q

Orthologous genes

A

2 genes share common ancestor, across species

88
Q

Example of orthologous genes

A

human and frog insulin gene

89
Q

Gene redundancy

A

When no phenotype difference is observed when a gene is mutated due to another gene replacing function of mutated gene, essentially masking it.

90
Q

Paralogous genes in gene redundancy

A

Can mask effects of mutated gene. May receive novel functions - partial redundancy

91
Q

Somite

A

Segmented blocks in our bodies which give rise to vertebrae, body muscles and dermis in our body axis.

92
Q

Vertebrae

A

Morphological structure which can be used to assess AP positioning in the body

93
Q

HOw many rounds of tandem duplication has there been in mammals and vertebrates

A

2

94
Q

Potency

A

Range of cell fates available to cell or group of cells

95
Q

Founder effect

A

loss of genetic variation that occurs when a new population forms by a very small number of individuals from a larger population

96
Q

Overdominance

A

condition wherein a heterozygote produces a phenotype better adapted than the homozygote

97
Q

Analogous genes

A

Structures with same function but different ancestors

98
Q

Directional selection

A

Occurs when conditions favour individuals exhibiting on extreme on a phenotypic range, shifting population frequency curve one way or the other

99
Q

Disruptive seletion

A

Occurs when conditions favour individuals at both extremes of a phenotypic range over individuals with intermediate phenotype.

100
Q

Stabilizing selection

A

acts against both phenotypes and favours intermediate variants

101
Q

Transitional form

A

Individuals showing intermediate states between an ancestral form and that of its descendants

102
Q

Postzygotic isolation

A

reproductive isolation due to decreased fitness and inability to mate

103
Q

Inclusive fitness

A

Individuals genetic success is derived from cooperation and altruistic behaviour

104
Q

Hamilton’s law

A

r x B > C
B - benefit in number of offspring equivalents gained by recipient of altruism
C - cost suffered
r - genetic relatedness of altruist to beneficiary - possibility gene is shared

105
Q

In plants, the stage of sexual life cycle where cells are haploid is

A

gametophyte

106
Q

cytosine methylation is associated with

A

genomic imprinting

107
Q

Where is the SRY gene expressed

A

in the indifferent gonads of male embryos

108
Q

Evolution occurs under which conditions

A

heritable traits which vary between individuals and which lead to differential fitness

109
Q

Haplotype

A

Combination of closely linked SNPs or alleles on single chromosome

110
Q

john gurdon experiment

A

nuclei from differentiated cells from adult or tadpole can be reprogrammed

111
Q

Incomplete dominance

A

when dominant allele doesnt completely mask the effects of the recessive gene

Neuroscience (22 decks)

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