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DNA Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What did Watson and Crick do?

A

introduced an elegant double-helical model for the structure of deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA

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2
Q

What did TH Morgan discover?

A

-genes are stored in chromosomes inside cell nuclei.
- the two components of chromosomes—DNA and protein—became candidates for the genetic material

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3
Q

What did Hershey and Chase discover?

A

concluded that DNA, not protein, was the genetic material

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4
Q

What did Rosalind Franklin discover?

A
  • discovery of the structure of DNA
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5
Q

Chargaff’s Rules

A
  • The base composition of DNA varies between species
  • In any species the number of A and T bases is equal and the number of G and C bases is equa
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6
Q

Why do purines always bond with pyrimidines?

A

the distance between them is good

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7
Q

Purine and Purine cannot bind because

A

they are too wide

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8
Q

Pyrimidine cannot bind to Pyrimidine because

A

they are too narrow

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9
Q

Why do adenine and cytosine not bind together?

A

because of different number of hydrogen bonds

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10
Q

How do bonds between G and C and A and T differ?

A

G and C is stronger as they have 3 bonds

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11
Q

Semiconservative Model

A

In this model, the two strands of DNA unwind from each other, and each acts as a template for synthesis of a new, complementary strand.

This results in two DNA molecules with one original strand and one new strand.

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12
Q

Helicase

A

an enzyme that unwinds and separates the two strands of the DNA double helix

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13
Q

Topiomerase

A

relieve the pressure during the uncoiling of DNA by breaking one back bone and bringing it back together

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14
Q

Primase

A

initiate the addition of new nitrogen-containing bases to the single-stranded DNA that was brought about by the actions of helicase

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15
Q

DNA polymerase

A

to add new nucleotides to the 3’ end of a growing chain.

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16
Q

Lagging Strand

A

The strand that opens in the 3’ to 5’ direction towards the replication fork

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17
Q

Okazai Fragment

A

the short lengths of DNA that are produced by the discontinuous replication of the lagging strand.

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18
Q

DNA ligase

A

oining of DNA strands together by catalyzing the formation of a phosphodiester bond.

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19
Q

RNA primer

A

tells DNA polymerase where to start

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20
Q

Transcription

A

Making an mRNA copy of DNA

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21
Q

What is the only time the cell cannot make new RNA?

A

Mitosis

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22
Q

Mismatch Repair

A

DNA polymerases proofread newly made DNA, replacing any incorrect nucleotides

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23
Q

nucleotide excision repair

A

a nuclease cuts out and replaces damaged stretches of DNA

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24
Q

Telomeres

A

special nucleotide sequences at ends that are eaten away and contribute to aging

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25
Q

Telomerase

A

catalyzes the lengthening of telomeres in germ cells

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26
Q

Immortal Cell Line

A

cell that has active telomerase that can replace caps and be endlessly replicated

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27
Q

What is the organization from DNA to Chromsomes

A
  1. DNA
  2. Histone
  3. Nucleosome
    4.Chromatin
  4. Chromosome

small to thick

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28
Q

Heterochromatin

A

tightly packed chromatin that we cannot use

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29
Q

Euchromatin

A

loosley packed chromatin that we use

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30
Q

Nucleosome

A

basic unit of DNA packaging

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31
Q

Transformation

A

a process by which foreign genetic material is taken up by a cell

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32
Q

Transduction

A

moving dna from one cell to another using a virus

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33
Q

Conjugation

A

the process by which one bacterium transfers genetic material to another through direct contact

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34
Q

Translation

A

the synthesis of a polypeptide using information in mRNA

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35
Q

Rough ER

A

site of ribosomes making proteins

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36
Q

Where does transcription take place in humans and bacteria

A

nucleus and cytoplasm ; bacteria do not have a nucleus

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37
Q

Where does translation take place

A

ribosomes

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38
Q

Introns

A

a segment of a DNA or RNA molecule which does not code for proteins and interrupts the sequence of genes.

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39
Q

Exons

A

a segment of a DNA or RNA molecule containing information coding for a protein or peptide sequence.

40
Q

How many amino acids?

A

20

41
Q

Codons

A

three nucleotides that code for a single amino acid ; these are on mRNA

42
Q

Relationship with codons and amino acid

A

codons can code for the same amino acid

43
Q

start codon

A

AUG

44
Q

stop codons

A

UAA, UGA, UAG

45
Q

Frameshift Mutations

A

adding one or subtracting one codon

46
Q

Initiation

A

occurs when the enzyme RNA polymerase binds to a region of a gene called the promoter. the mRNA strand enters the ribosome, allowing tRNA to attach at a region called the start codon.

47
Q

Elongation

A

the stage when the RNA strand gets longer, thanks to the addition of new nucleotides.

48
Q

TATA Box

A

indicates to RNA where promoter site is

49
Q

Promoter Region

A

where the start point for RNA replication is ; binding point for rna polymerase

50
Q

How fast is transcription

A

40 nucleotides per second

51
Q

What three things does the nucleus need before snding off rnA

A

1 - 5’ cap
2- poly a tail
3-introns

52
Q

poly A tails

A

dictates how much RNA can be used

53
Q

Splicisome

A

used to splice RNA

54
Q

alternative splicing

A

a cellular process in which exons from the same gene are joined in different combinations, leading to different, but related, mRNA transcripts.

55
Q

Transcription Unit

A

stretch of DNA that is transcribed

56
Q

What does tRNA do chemically?

A

binds to an amino acid and contains anticodon segments

57
Q

What does tRNA do functionally

A

the tRNA “reads” the mRNA and “translates” it into a sequence of amino acids.

58
Q

Amincoacyl-tRNA-synthetase

A

enzyme matches tRNA and amino acid

59
Q

Ribosomal RNA

A

makes up rna

60
Q

Translation - process of building RNA in ribosome - has three stations. What are they?

A

A for attachment
P for polypeptide elongation
E- exit

61
Q

Feedback Inhibition

A

regulatory mechanism in which the activity of the first enzyme in a metabolic pathway is inhibited by the end product of that pathway.

62
Q

Operon

A

A functional unit of DNA containing a cluster of genes under the control of a single promoter, including the operator and promoter regions.

63
Q

Promoter

A

The DNA sequence where RNA polymerase binds to initiate transcription.

64
Q

Activator

A

A protein that increases gene transcription by binding to the promoter or enhancer region.

65
Q

Repressor

A

A protein that inhibits gene transcription by binding to the operator region.

66
Q

Corepressor

A

A molecule that cooperates with a repressor protein to inhibit gene transcription. Added to repressor to activate. These turn genes off.

67
Q

Inducer

A

deactivate repressor/ not the same as activators

68
Q

Inducible Operon

A

An operon whose transcription is activated in response to a specific inducer molecule.
- usually turned off

68
Q

Histone Acetylation

A

The addition of acetyl groups to histone proteins, often associated with an open chromatin structure and increased gene transcription.

-

68
Q

DNA Methylation

A

The addition of methyl groups to DNA molecules, which can result in the repression of gene transcription

69
Q

Repressible Operon

A

An operon whose transcription is inhibited in response to a specific corepressor molecule.
- usually turned on

70
Q

Cloning Vector

A

A DNA molecule capable of carrying foreign DNA into a cell and replicating there. (Eg: bacterial plasmid)

71
Q

Restriction Enzymes

A

Enzymes that cut DNA molecules at specific locations; used in making recombinant DNA.

72
Q

Why are restriction enzymes important?

A

Discovery of restriction enzymes facilitated gene cloning and genetic engineering by enabling precise cutting of DNA molecules.

73
Q

Sticky Ends

A

: Sticky ends refer to the single-stranded overhangs created by the staggered cuts made by restriction enzymes on DNA molecules. These overhangs have unpaired nucleotides

74
Q

Gel Electrophoresis

A

a method for rapidly analyzing and comparing genomes by separating macromolecules (nucleic acids or proteins) based on their rate of movement through a polymer gel in an electrical field. The rate of movement depends on size, electrical charge, and other physical properties.

75
Q

Noncoding RNA

A

Noncoding RNA refers to RNA molecules that do not encode proteins but play crucial roles in various cellular processes, including gene regulation.

76
Q

miRNA (MicroRNA)

A

Small, single-stranded RNA molecules that bind to complementary sequences in mRNA molecules.

77
Q

miRNA Formation

A

Derived from longer RNA precursors that fold back on themselves to form short, double-stranded hairpin structures.

78
Q

Dicer Enzyme

A

Cuts each hairpin into short, double-stranded fragments (about 22 nucleotide pairs).

79
Q

RNA Interference (RNAi)

A

The phenomenon of inhibiting gene expression by RNA molecules.

80
Q

siRNA (Small Interfering RNA)

A

Similar in size and function to miRNAs, generated by similar mechanisms in eukaryotic cells.

81
Q

RNAi Mechanism

A

Injecting double-stranded RNA molecules into a cell can turn off the expression of a gene with the same sequence as the RNA.

82
Q

Epigenetic Inheritance

A

The inheritance of traits by mechanisms not directly involving changes in the nucleotide sequence.

83
Q

Epigenetic Variations

A

Epigenetic variations may contribute to differences between identical twins in acquiring genetically based diseases, such as schizophrenia, despite having identical genomes.

84
Q

DNA Methylations and Cancer

A

Alterations in normal patterns of DNA methylation are observed in some cancers, associated with inappropriate gene expression.

85
Q

Oncogenes

A

Genes that, when mutated or overexpressed, can contribute to the development of cancer.

86
Q

Protoncogenes

A

Normal cellular genes that can become oncogenes when mutated or overexpressed.

87
Q

Ras GENES

A

A family of genes that code for proteins involved in cell signaling; mutations in Ras genes are commonly found in cancers.

88
Q

Acetyl

A

double bond of oxygens

89
Q

PCR STEPS

A

Denaturation: heat up to 70
Annealing : cool down
Extension : heat up again

90
Q

Polymerase Chain Reaction

A

making copies of dna with machine

91
Q

DNA Cloning

A
  • done with plasmid so bacteria
92
Q

electroporation

A

applying an electrical pulse to create temporary holes in plasma membranes

93
Q

Reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain

A

useful for comparing

94
Q

CRISPR- CAS 9

A

uses RNA to get to replace targeted genes in adults

Biology (20 decks)

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