Chpt 7: LTM Encoding (PSY311) Flashcards
Def: maintenance rehearsal
Maintenance rehearsal: repeating to be remembered info over and over again like when you repeat a phone number in order to remember it.
Def: elaborative rehearsal
Elaborative rehearsal: connecting to be learned info to something meaningful to you.
Success of __________ depends on the ________ of processing.
encoding, depth
Levels of processing theory was made by whom?
Lockhart
Def: shallow processing
Shallow processing: based on surface level features (size of font, letter case, individual letters/numbers)
Def: deep processing
Deep processing: based on the meaning of the info & its relationship to other info (connecting a newly learned name to something you associate with that person).
Craik & Tulving (‘75) experiment on shallow & deeper processing
Participants were asked to 1 or 3 possible questions:
Is the word printed in cap letters
Does the word rhyme with this?
Would the word fit into this sentence?
Participants were later given a memory test of the words they saw.
Participants had better memory as the depth of processing increased
It’s easier to encode info if we can connect it to our activated network of already known info
Def: paired-associate learning
Paired-associate learning: a list of words of pairs are presented. Later, shown the 1st word & asked to recall the 2nd.
Bower & Winzenz experiment
Bower & Winzenz (‘70) found that memory was better when participants were asked to imagine the 2 items visually
More feature/meaning based!
How might a boat interact with a tree?
were to think abt the features of each.
Connecting words or newly learning info to yourself makes it ________ to remember than otherwise and we know ourselves well.
easier
Leshikar & Co demonstration on the self-reference effect.
Has participants in the study phase of their experiment looking at a series of adjectives presented on a screen for 3secs per word.
2 conditions, the self condition, in which participants indicated whether the adjective described themselves, and the common condition in which participants indicated whether the word was commonly used.
They had to remember previous words.
The memory was better for the self condition than the common condition
Def: generation effect
Generation effect: Info that we produce, or generate, instead of just receiving, is better learned
Slameka & Graf demonstration on the generation effect
Had participants study a list of word paris in 2 diff ways:
Read group: read these pairs of related words.
Generative group: fill in the blank with the word that is related to the first word.
Participants were then presented with the first word in each pair & were told to indicate the word that went with it.
Participants who had generated the 2nd word in each pair were able to reproduce 28% more word pairs than participants who had just read the word pairs
We are forced to _________ our prior knowledge to generate the pair, __________ processing!
activate, deeper
Bower & Co experiment
Organized words according to categories.
One group of participants studied 4 separate trees for minerals, animals, clothing, and transportation for a minute each and were then asked to recall as many words as they could from all 4 trees.
During the recall test, participants tended to organize their responses in the same way the trees were organized, first saying minerals then metals and common etc.
Participants in this group recalled an average of 73 words from all 4 trees.
Another group also saw 4 trees, but the words were random, so that each tree had random words.
Bower & Co experiment results
These participants were able to remember only 21 words from all 4 trees.
Organizing material to be remembered results in substantially better recall
Bransford & Johnson experiment
Bransford & Johnson asked participants to read a passage.
The participants not only found it difficult to picture what was going on, but they also found it extremely difficult to remember this passage.
Participants who saw the picture before they read the passage remembered twice as much from the passage as participants who didn’t see the pic or participants who saw the pic after they read the passage
Pictures provide a mental _________ that helps the reader _____ one sentence to the next to create a meaningful story.
framework, link
Retrieval cues help us ________ info we’ve already stored in LTM.
remember
It’s easier to remember info when we understand the ________ for its meaning.
context
What did Nairne suggest?
Nairne proposes that we can understand how memory works by considering its function, bc thru the process of evolution, memory was shaped to increase the ability to survive, especially in situations experienced by our ancestors, who were faced with basic survival challenges like finding food & evading predators.
Nairne’s experiment
Had participants imagine tha they were stranded on a grassland of a foreign country without any basic survival materials.
They were presented with a list of words.
Their task was to rate each word based on how relevant it would be before finding supplies of food & water & providing protection from predators.
Participants were later given a surprise memory test that showed that carrying out this survival tasks resulted in better memory than other elaborate encoding procedures we have described.
Concluded that survival processing is a powerful tool for encoding items into memory.
The 2 most important studying strategies:
Elaborate
Testing
Def: elaborate (retrieval)
Elaborate: think about what the material means, process it deeply based solely on its meaning.
Def: testing (retrieval)
Testing: when studying, don’t just reread it! You gotta gest yourself too by making notecards and forcing yourself to generate the info when recalling.
Karpicke & Roediger experiment on the retrieval practice effect
Participants studied a list of 40 Swahili-English word paris and then saw one of the words in each pair and were asked to remember the other word.
All 3 groups studied all of the paris and then were tested on all of the paris. When tested, they recalled some pairs and didn’t recall others.
In the second phase of the experiment, the 3 groups had different study and test experiences.
Group 1 continued the first procedure. They studied all pairs and were tested on all parts until their performance reached 100%.
Group 2 had the study test sequence changed. Once a pair was recalled correctly in a test, it was no longer studied in next study sessions. But, all all for the pairs are tested during each test secession until performance reached 100%
Group 3 the test part of the study test sequence was changed. Once a pair was recalled correctly, it was no longer tested during the next sessions. This group was therefore tested on less of the pairs as the experiment progressed.
Results of the Karpicke & Roediger experiment on the retrieval practice effect
A week later groups 1 and 2 recalled 81% of the pairs but group 3 only recalled 36%.
Shows that being tested is important for learning bc when testing was stopped for the last group, their performance decreased.
2nd group shows that the cessation of studying doesn’t affect performance.
Def: testing effect
Testing effect: enhanced performance due to retrieval practice/tests.
Def: encoding specificity
Encoding specificity: we encode info along with its context (the environment we are in when we learn it).
Def: state-dependent learning
State-dependent learning: our internal context matters too bc our internal state (mood) is also encoded when we’re learning.
We can _________ our memory ______ it gets encoded by trying to retrieve it.
strengthen, after
Research has shown that students who read a text with the idea of making up __________ did as well on an exam as students who read the text with the idea of answering questions later, and both groups did _________ than a group of students who didn’t create or answer questions.
questions, better
Research also shows that many studies believe that __________ the material is more effective than testing themselves on it, but when they do test themselves, it’s usually to determine what they are doing, not as a tool to increase learning.
reviewing
