Chpt 13: Reasoning (PSY311) Flashcards
Def: Decisions
Processes of making choices between diff alternatives which are based on reasoning & judgements.
Def: Reasoning
process of drawing conclusions.
Our ________ helps with _________.
reasoning, decisions
Def: Inductive reasoning
reasoning based off of one’s observation & reaching conclusions that is solely based on one’s evidence
Strength of argument depends on:
Representativeness of the observations
Number of observations
Quality of observations. - Are they valuable?
Inductive reasoning with scientific discoveries:
Hypotheses & general conclusions
Collection of data taken from participants.
More experiments documenting the same pattern, makes the argument stronger.
Inductive reasoning is used ________ - our lives are based on _________ of what might happen based on the past.
everyday, predictions
__________ are rules of thumb that are likely to provide the correct answer to an issue but it’s not _________.
Heuristics, foolproof
2 most commonly used heuristics are the __________ heuristic & the ___________________ heuristic.
availability, representativeness
Def: Availability heuristic
events more easily recalled are judged as having more probability than those less easily remembered.
The _________ heuristic is something that we use all the time usually ________ error.
Ex: It’s Monday and Matt isn’t home. Your conclusion will most likely be right, he is most likely at work bc he has work on Mondays.
availability, without
Def: Illusory correlations
happen when a relationship between 2 events appears to exist, but in reality, there is no relationship or the relationship is much weaker than it is assumed to be. Can happen when we are expecting 2 things to be related, sometimes they aren’t.
Def: Representative heuristics
probability that A is a member of class B is determined by how well properties of A resemble properties normally associated with B.
If it looks like a whale, swims like a whale, sounds like a whale, it’s probably a whale
How much does one event resemble another?
If there’s a lot of overlap, they are probability related.
The representative heuristic gives us a rule of thumb based on how much _______ we think there is between _________ of an individual & groups they could be a member of.
overlap, features/characteristics
The _________ heuristic can lead to stereotyping which is dangerous.
representative
____________ tends to focus on perceived features of members of a group which are usually negative & not representative of the group as a whole. It’s an example of the ____________________
Stereotyping, representative heuristic not working.
Def: Myside bias
tendency for humans to generate & evaluate evidence & test their hypothesis in a way that is very biased towards their own opinions & attitudes.
Those who believe the earth is flat will often ________ any evidence to the contrary & come up with fantastical explanations as to how images and data are _______ to support their stupid claims.
ignore, fake
Ppl can look at the same data and/or _________ & come to diff conclusions bc of the _________ bias.
evidence, myside
Def: Confirmation bias
tendency to selectively look for info that confirms our hypothesis & overlook info that argues against it.
Especially on social media, we find ourselves in ______ chambers, going thru pages, forums, sites, ew programs, that will probably tell us things that we ________ agree with.
echo, already
Def: Conjunction rule
states that the probability of a conjunction of 2 events cannot be higher than the probability of the single constituents.
Def: Backfire effect
when our belief in a specific viewpoint becomes stronger after seeing evidence or hearing arguments against it.
This is the idea of entrenchment & makes it very hard to get ppl to change their beliefs.
Def: Law of large numbers
states that the larger the number of individuals that are randomly drawn from a population, the more representative the resulting group will be of the entire population.
If ppl did have the _________ to know that the info is inaccurate, then they would no longer trust it or draw conclusions from it.
resources
Def: Deductive reasoning
determining whether a conclusion logically follows from premises
Def: Syllogism
2 statements called premises, 3rd statement is the conclusion. The goal is to think abt how the statement logically connects.
The _______ bias can cause faulty reasoning to be accepted as valid, especially if the conclusions of an _______ syllogism is believable.
belief, invalid
Def: Categorical syllogism
describe relations between 2 categories using all, no, or some
Syllogism is _______ for conclusions following from its 2 premises.
valid
Do not confuse ________ with truth!
validity
Def: Belief bias
tendency to think that a syllogism is valid if its conclusions are believable or plausible.
The Wason 2-card Problem:
based on the falsification principle.
To test a rule, you have to look for situations that falsify the rule
The goal is to indicate which cards you would need to turn over to test if there is a vowel on one side, then there has to be a number on the other.
Most participants fail to do this
If there is an odd number on the other side, then that makes the rule not true.
When problems are stated less abstractly, correct responses increase greatly.
Can find the right answer by means of The falsification principle
Def: Falsification principle
to test a rule, it’s essential to look for situations that would falsify the rule.
Def: Permission schema
states that if a person satisfies a certain condition, then they get to do said action.
Def: Mental model
a specific situation represented in one’s mind that can be used to help determine the validity of syllogisms in deductive reasoning
The mental model theory is attractive bc it can be used to ________ the syllogism’s validity without training in the rules of logic & bc it makes _________ that can be tested.
assess, predictions
Def: Conditional syllogisms
have 2 premises (parts) with a conclusion sorta like a categorical syllogism, but instead the 1st premise has the “if this, then that” form.
4 major types of conditional syllogism: if p, then q.
modus ponens - if p, then q.
Modus tollens - not q, therefore not p.
Syllogism 3 - q,, therefore p
Syllogism 4 - not p, therefore not q.
Def: Expected utility theory
a theory that assumes that ppl are basically rational, if ppl have all of the needed info, they will make a decision based off of their results in the maximum expected utility.
It specifies procedures that would make it plausible to determine what choice would result in the highest monetary value.
Def: Utility
the outcomes that achieve one’s goals in the Expected Utility Theory
Def: Expected emotions
emotions that ppl predict they might feel when a certain outcome occurs.
Def: Risk aversion
the tendency to avoid taking risks.
The tendency to predict that a particular loss will have a _______ impact than a gain of the same size would increase the chances of _______________.
greater, risk aversion
Def: Incidental emotions
emotions that aren’t caused by having to make a decision.
This can be related to one’s general disposition
Ppl’s judgments are affected by the way choices are _______.
stated
Def: Opt-in procedure
a procedure that requires one to take an active step.
Def: Opt-out procedure
when everyone has the potential for one thing unless they request not to be.
Ex: being a potential organ donor
Def: Status quo bias
the tendency to do nothing when faced with 2 choices.
The tendency to stay with the ___________ also happens when ppl decide to stay with their present health plan even when they are given choices that could be ________ than their current situation.
status quo, better
Def: Risk aversion strategy
a decision making strategy that is governed by the idea of avoiding risks. Often used when a problem is stated in terms of gains.
Def: Framing effect
decisions are influenced by how the choices are stated.
When a choice is _______ in terms of gains, ppl use a risk aversion strategy, and when a choice is framed in terms of losses, ppl use the ____________ strategy.
framed, risk taking
Def: Neuroeconomics
combines research from the fields of psych, neuroscience, and economics to study how brain activations are related to decisions that involve potential gains or losses.
Def: Ultimatum game
involves 2 players, one for the proposer and the other as the responder. The proposer is given money and makes an offer to the responder as to how this money should be split between them. If accepted, the money is split, if not, neither player gets anything
According to _____ theory, the responder should always ________ the proposer’s offer as long as it’s greater than zero.
utility, accept
Ppl are _______ likely to be angry with an unfair computer than with an unfair person.
less
What were the findings of Sanfey & Co’s experiment?
Sanfey & co found that the right anterior insula (between the parietal & temporal lobes) is activated abt 3x more stinky when responders reject an offer than when they accept it.
The _____ was also activated by the decision task, but this activation was the ______ for offers that were rejected & offers that were accepted.
PFC, same
