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Psychology Fall Sem 2024 > Chpt 13: Reasoning (PSY311) > Flashcards

Chpt 13: Reasoning (PSY311) Flashcards

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1
Q

Def: Decisions

A

Processes of making choices between diff alternatives which are based on reasoning & judgements.

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2
Q

Def: Reasoning

A

process of drawing conclusions.

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3
Q

Our ________ helps with _________.

A

reasoning, decisions

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4
Q

Def: Inductive reasoning

A

reasoning based off of one’s observation & reaching conclusions that is solely based on one’s evidence

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5
Q

Strength of argument depends on:

A

Representativeness of the observations
Number of observations
Quality of observations. - Are they valuable?

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6
Q

Inductive reasoning with scientific discoveries:

A

Hypotheses & general conclusions
Collection of data taken from participants.
More experiments documenting the same pattern, makes the argument stronger.

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7
Q

Inductive reasoning is used ________ - our lives are based on _________ of what might happen based on the past.

A

everyday, predictions

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8
Q

__________ are rules of thumb that are likely to provide the correct answer to an issue but it’s not _________.

A

Heuristics, foolproof

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9
Q

2 most commonly used heuristics are the __________ heuristic & the ___________________ heuristic.

A

availability, representativeness

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10
Q

Def: Availability heuristic

A

events more easily recalled are judged as having more probability than those less easily remembered.

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11
Q

The _________ heuristic is something that we use all the time usually ________ error.
Ex: It’s Monday and Matt isn’t home. Your conclusion will most likely be right, he is most likely at work bc he has work on Mondays.

A

availability, without

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12
Q

Def: Illusory correlations

A

happen when a relationship between 2 events appears to exist, but in reality, there is no relationship or the relationship is much weaker than it is assumed to be. Can happen when we are expecting 2 things to be related, sometimes they aren’t.

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13
Q

Def: Representative heuristics

A

probability that A is a member of class B is determined by how well properties of A resemble properties normally associated with B.
If it looks like a whale, swims like a whale, sounds like a whale, it’s probably a whale

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14
Q

How much does one event resemble another?

A

If there’s a lot of overlap, they are probability related.

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15
Q

The representative heuristic gives us a rule of thumb based on how much _______ we think there is between _________ of an individual & groups they could be a member of.

A

overlap, features/characteristics

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16
Q

The _________ heuristic can lead to stereotyping which is dangerous.

A

representative

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17
Q

____________ tends to focus on perceived features of members of a group which are usually negative & not representative of the group as a whole. It’s an example of the ____________________

A

Stereotyping, representative heuristic not working.

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18
Q

Def: Myside bias

A

tendency for humans to generate & evaluate evidence & test their hypothesis in a way that is very biased towards their own opinions & attitudes.

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18
Q

Those who believe the earth is flat will often ________ any evidence to the contrary & come up with fantastical explanations as to how images and data are _______ to support their stupid claims.

A

ignore, fake

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18
Q

Ppl can look at the same data and/or _________ & come to diff conclusions bc of the _________ bias.

A

evidence, myside

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19
Q

Def: Confirmation bias

A

tendency to selectively look for info that confirms our hypothesis & overlook info that argues against it.

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20
Q

Especially on social media, we find ourselves in ______ chambers, going thru pages, forums, sites, ew programs, that will probably tell us things that we ________ agree with.

A

echo, already

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21
Q

Def: Conjunction rule

A

states that the probability of a conjunction of 2 events cannot be higher than the probability of the single constituents.

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22
Q

Def: Backfire effect

A

when our belief in a specific viewpoint becomes stronger after seeing evidence or hearing arguments against it.
This is the idea of entrenchment & makes it very hard to get ppl to change their beliefs.

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23
Q

Def: Law of large numbers

A

states that the larger the number of individuals that are randomly drawn from a population, the more representative the resulting group will be of the entire population.

24
Q

If ppl did have the _________ to know that the info is inaccurate, then they would no longer trust it or draw conclusions from it.

A

resources

25
Q

Def: Deductive reasoning

A

determining whether a conclusion logically follows from premises

26
Q

Def: Syllogism

A

2 statements called premises, 3rd statement is the conclusion. The goal is to think abt how the statement logically connects.

27
Q

The _______ bias can cause faulty reasoning to be accepted as valid, especially if the conclusions of an _______ syllogism is believable.

A

belief, invalid

28
Q

Def: Categorical syllogism

A

describe relations between 2 categories using all, no, or some

29
Q

Syllogism is _______ for conclusions following from its 2 premises.

A

valid

30
Q

Do not confuse ________ with truth!

A

validity

31
Q

Def: Belief bias

A

tendency to think that a syllogism is valid if its conclusions are believable or plausible.

32
Q

The Wason 2-card Problem:

A

based on the falsification principle.
To test a rule, you have to look for situations that falsify the rule
The goal is to indicate which cards you would need to turn over to test if there is a vowel on one side, then there has to be a number on the other.
Most participants fail to do this
If there is an odd number on the other side, then that makes the rule not true.
When problems are stated less abstractly, correct responses increase greatly.
Can find the right answer by means of The falsification principle

33
Q

Def: Falsification principle

A

to test a rule, it’s essential to look for situations that would falsify the rule.

34
Q

Def: Permission schema

A

states that if a person satisfies a certain condition, then they get to do said action.

35
Q

Def: Mental model

A

a specific situation represented in one’s mind that can be used to help determine the validity of syllogisms in deductive reasoning

36
Q

The mental model theory is attractive bc it can be used to ________ the syllogism’s validity without training in the rules of logic & bc it makes _________ that can be tested.

A

assess, predictions

37
Q

Def: Conditional syllogisms

A

have 2 premises (parts) with a conclusion sorta like a categorical syllogism, but instead the 1st premise has the “if this, then that” form.

38
Q

4 major types of conditional syllogism: if p, then q.

A

modus ponens - if p, then q.
Modus tollens - not q, therefore not p.
Syllogism 3 - q,, therefore p
Syllogism 4 - not p, therefore not q.

39
Q

Def: Expected utility theory

A

a theory that assumes that ppl are basically rational, if ppl have all of the needed info, they will make a decision based off of their results in the maximum expected utility.
It specifies procedures that would make it plausible to determine what choice would result in the highest monetary value.

40
Q

Def: Utility

A

the outcomes that achieve one’s goals in the Expected Utility Theory

41
Q

Def: Expected emotions

A

emotions that ppl predict they might feel when a certain outcome occurs.

42
Q

Def: Risk aversion

A

the tendency to avoid taking risks.

43
Q

The tendency to predict that a particular loss will have a _______ impact than a gain of the same size would increase the chances of _______________.

A

greater, risk aversion

44
Q

Def: Incidental emotions

A

emotions that aren’t caused by having to make a decision.
This can be related to one’s general disposition

45
Q

Ppl’s judgments are affected by the way choices are _______.

A

stated

46
Q

Def: Opt-in procedure

A

a procedure that requires one to take an active step.

47
Q

Def: Opt-out procedure

A

when everyone has the potential for one thing unless they request not to be.
Ex: being a potential organ donor

48
Q

Def: Status quo bias

A

the tendency to do nothing when faced with 2 choices.

49
Q

The tendency to stay with the ___________ also happens when ppl decide to stay with their present health plan even when they are given choices that could be ________ than their current situation.

A

status quo, better

50
Q

Def: Risk aversion strategy

A

a decision making strategy that is governed by the idea of avoiding risks. Often used when a problem is stated in terms of gains.

51
Q

Def: Framing effect

A

decisions are influenced by how the choices are stated.

52
Q

When a choice is _______ in terms of gains, ppl use a risk aversion strategy, and when a choice is framed in terms of losses, ppl use the ____________ strategy.

A

framed, risk taking

53
Q

Def: Neuroeconomics

A

combines research from the fields of psych, neuroscience, and economics to study how brain activations are related to decisions that involve potential gains or losses.

54
Q

Def: Ultimatum game

A

involves 2 players, one for the proposer and the other as the responder. The proposer is given money and makes an offer to the responder as to how this money should be split between them. If accepted, the money is split, if not, neither player gets anything

55
Q

According to _____ theory, the responder should always ________ the proposer’s offer as long as it’s greater than zero.

A

utility, accept

56
Q

Ppl are _______ likely to be angry with an unfair computer than with an unfair person.

A

less

57
Q

What were the findings of Sanfey & Co’s experiment?

A

Sanfey & co found that the right anterior insula (between the parietal & temporal lobes) is activated abt 3x more stinky when responders reject an offer than when they accept it.

58
Q

The _____ was also activated by the decision task, but this activation was the ______ for offers that were rejected & offers that were accepted.

A

PFC, same

Psychology Fall Sem 2024 (24 decks)

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