Chapter 12: Problem Solving (PSY311) Flashcards
Def: Problem
an obstacle between a present state and a goal
Def: Problem solving
working around some obstacles to achieve some goal
Goal directed behavior & thoughts
Impasse to be worked around
The Gestalt approach is that success in solving issues is influenced by how it’s ___________ in our minds.
represented
Components to problem solving:
Initial state
Goal state
Subgoals
Operators
Def: Initial state
the starting point of problem solving.
Def: Goal state
End goal that you want to achieve
Def: Subgoals
Target immediate steps
Def: Operators
Rules for legal moves to intermediate states.
Def: Intermediate state
created by each action by a sequence of choices of steps.
Made by Newell & Simon
Mental Representations do what?
All possible actions, operators.
Represents obstances
Configure a reasonable method around obstacles while obeying rules & moving towards the goal.
Def: Well Defined problems
Clear initial state & goal state
Clear operators & possible moves
Def: Ill defined problems
Might have unclear initial state and/or goal state
Unclear operators or possible moves
Def: Insight
any sudden comprehension, realization or problem solution that involves a reorganization of a person’s mental representation of a stimulus, situation, or event to yield an interpretation that wasn’t initially obv.
This is a type of ill-defined problem
Def: Analytically based issues
problems solved by a process of systematic analysis, often us8ing techniques based on past experiences.
We have strategies: either rely on ______ strategies or we develop new ones
prev
Def: Fixation
our tendency to focus on a specific characteristic of the issue that keeps us from arriving at a solution.
Def: Reproductive thinking
applying successful methods to accomplish a similar task
Scaling issues (same strategy, diff operators)
Aka- reproduce what works for you
Def: Productive thinking
shift in perspective.
Requires insight
The 4-line issue requires thinking outside the box and self-imposed operators
Producing new thoughts/ideas to solve issues.
Def: Functional fixedness
Functional fixedness: focusing on familiar functions or uses of an object.
Def: Mental set
a preconceived notion abt how to approach a problem, determined by our experience of what has worked in the past
Def: Water jug problem
participants were told that their task was to figure out on paper how to obtain a required volume of water, then were given 3 empty jars.
________________ used a computer program that was made to simulate our problem solving.
This is the beginning of a research program that ________ problem solving as a process that involves search.
Newell & Simon, describes
Why is the Tower of Hanoi important?
It illustrates means-end analysis, with its setting of subgoals, this can be applied IRL.
Def: Think-aloud procedure
participants were asked to solve a problem and say out loud all of their thoughts. Determine what info one is attending to while solving an issue
Def: General Problem Solver (GPS) Theory
Model to account for problem solving processes
Looks at how do we go thru the steps of solving an issue
Requirements for General Problem Solver (GPS) Theory
Mental representation of initial and goal state
A search thru the problem space
Def: Algorithm
a set of procedures for solving a problem type
Eventually leads to a solution
Time consuming, high working memory & LTM demands
Def: Heuristics (chp 12)
rule of thumb that generally leads to the correct answer
Fast, less cognitively taxing
Uline algorithms, doesn’t guarantee the correct solution
Often used when issues are ill-defined, less confidence in representation.
Types of Problem Solving Heuristics
Random Search
Analogy
Hill Climbing
Def: Random Search
Trial & error
Pick an option, see what happens.
Def: Analogy
Seeing parallels between current problem space & another solve problem space
Difficult to use bc it requires lot of background knowledge
Def: Hill Climbing
Thinking one move ahead
Which move most closely represents the goal?
Def: analogy transfer
application of problem space to solve a current problem.
Def: Target problem
the problem the participant is trying to solve.
Def: Source problem
another problem that shares some similarities with the target problem & that illustrates a way to solve the target problem
3 steps to the analogical problem solving:
Noticing that there are analogous relationships between the source and target problem.
Mapping the correspondences between the source and target problem.
Applying the mapping to generate a parallel solution to the target problem.
_______ & ________ are the 2 steps of the analogical problem solving technique that is the hardest to follow.
Mapping, Noticing
Def: Analogical encoding
the process by which 2 issues are compared & similarities between them are determined.
Def: Trade-off strategy
a strategy that involves negotiating in which one person says to another “I’ll give you this, if you give me that”. This would require them both to switch this and that. Hence, the name
Def: Constituency strategy
a negotiating strategy when one person gets what they want if something else happens.
Def: Analogical paradox
states that people routinely use analogies irl.
Def: Creativity
anything made by ppl that is in some way new and has potential value/utility
Def: Functional fixedness
restricting use of objects to its familiar functions.
Candle dilemma
Seeing boxes as containers inhibited the idea of using them as supports to hold the candle on the wall.
Majer’s 2-string problem:
The participant is tasked with tying the 2 strings together. But they are too far apart to be grabbed at the same time while hanging from the ceiling.
Experts solve issues _____ than novices.
faster
Novices look for ______ features while experts look for _________ features (for rules)
surface, structural
Experts have more _________ than novices, they can also organize knowledge __________ than novices do.
knowledge, differently
Organizing based on principles results in more ________ problem solving, and experts’ ability to ________ knowledge has been found to be important not just for chess & physics but also for other fields as well.
effective, organize
Experts spend more time _________________ the problem rather than solving it.
understanding
Grant & Spivey Eye movements & Problem Solving
Researcher considered eye movements as The window of the mind
Assumptions are related to what you are thinking of.
Duncker’s retaliation problem (a story related to analogy)
Participants were asked to draw the situation in the story while the researchers are looking for instances of insight while tracking their eye movements.
Successful problem solvers spend more time viewing the skin area compared to the non successful problem solvers.
Evidence that what ppl look at is related to how they solve issues
Grant & Spivey’s 2nd experiment
Showed that features that draw participants’ attention increased the chances of solving issues (if the features help to solve it).
Directing attention towards skin led to greater success.
Attention is related to problem solving cognition
In context of solving a problem:
Looking at objects critical to solving the problem is important.
Our attention can be directed by the situation itself or we need to determine where our attention should be in order to best solve the issue.
Def: Divergent thinking
thinking that is open ended, which involves a huge amount of potential solutions bc some proposals might work better than others.
Explain Creativity 101 by Kaufman
Creativity 101, written by Kaufman, notes that divergent thinking is a cornerstone of creativity, but it’s not all of creativity.
Creative responses to issues need to be useful.
Sometimes too much knowledge can _______ creative problem solving.
hinder
Def: Group brainstorming
to encourage ppl to freely express their own ideas could be useful for solving a specific issue.
However, placing ppl in groups can result in fewer ideas presented; it can still be effective.
Def: Creative cognition
15 object parts were shown, one is instructed to pick 3. Read the instructions, then take a minute to think of a new object using those 3 parts. You’d know it works if the object looks interesting and is useful.
Created by Finke.
Def: Preinventive forms
what Finke refers to as “inventions” bc they are still ideas that precede the creation of a finished creative product
Ppl remember material more when they make it _________, this also happens for retrieval cues too.
themselves
Def: Nine-dot problem
a problem where the participant has to draw 2 straight lines that go thru nine dots with the pen on the paper at all times.
Def: Transcranial direct current stimulation
2 electrodes are put on one’s head. One electrode is negatively charged which would decrease the excitability of neurons under it. The other has the opposite effect.
Def: Compound Remote-associate problem
3 words are presented, and the task is to determine one word that would combine with each of the others to form a new word or phrase.
EEG activity ________ in the frontal lobe just before the insight solutions & increases in the __________ lobe just before the noninsight solutions.
increases, occipital
Def: Alternate uses task (AUT)
participants had 2mins to think of unusual uses for common objects
Def: Executive control network (ECN)
involved in directing attention as one is carrying out tasks, plays an important role in creativity
DMN & ECN were functionally _________ in both the generation & evaluation stages of the creative process.
connected
DMN & ECN were more ________ connected with highly __________ ppl.
strongly, creative
